Project – Biblical exegesis of priesthood: comparing and interpreting the Old with the New

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

• Background to the Study

The notion of priesthood in the Bible is multifaceted, evolving from the Old Testament’s Levitical priesthood to the New Testament’s understanding of Christ as the High Priest and the priesthood of all believers. In the Old Testament, the priesthood is intricately linked to the Levitical tribe, which was designated by God to serve as mediators between God and the people of Israel. The central function of the Levitical priests, as outlined in books like Leviticus, Numbers, and Exodus, involved offering sacrifices, maintaining the sanctity of the Tabernacle, and leading the people in worship. The priesthood was not just a religious role but also a symbol of God’s covenantal relationship with His people. Scholars like Milgrom (1991) and Wenham (1979) have explored how the rituals, sacrifices, and purity laws served to reinforce the holiness of God and the need for atonement.

The role of the priest in the Old Testament is also deeply connected to the idea of holiness and purity. The Levitical priests were appointed to maintain the purity of the sanctuary and intercede on behalf of Israel by offering sacrifices for sin (Lev 16). According to Strack and Billerbeck (2000), the idea of priestly mediation became a cornerstone of Jewish theology, underscoring the necessity of a human intermediary to approach the divine. The significance of this mediatory role is particularly highlighted during the Day of Atonement, when the high priest would enter the Holy of Holies to offer sacrifices for the sins of the people. This annual ritual embodied the Old Testament priesthood’s essential function of mediating between a holy God and a sinful people.

With the advent of the New Testament, the priesthood undergoes a profound transformation. In the book of Hebrews, the writer compares Jesus Christ’s priesthood to that of the Levitical priests, emphasizing the superiority of Christ’s priestly ministry. Unlike the Old Testament priests, who were sinners themselves and needed to offer sacrifices for their own sins (Heb 7:27), Christ is depicted as the perfect and sinless High Priest who offers Himself as the ultimate sacrifice (Heb 9:12). This radical shift in the understanding of priesthood signifies a move from temporal and imperfect mediation to a permanent and perfect mediation through Christ. Scholars like F. F. Bruce (1990) and William Lane (1991) have discussed how the epistle to the Hebrews interprets Christ’s priesthood as fulfilling and surpassing the Old Covenant’s sacrificial system.

Furthermore, the New Testament introduces the concept of the “priesthood of all believers” (1 Pet 2:9). This idea, rooted in the teachings of Jesus and the writings of Paul, signifies that all Christians, by virtue of their union with Christ, share in a spiritual priesthood. In his epistle to the Ephesians, Paul speaks of the church as a holy temple and the members as part of a royal priesthood (Eph 2:21–22). This shift from a specialized Levitical priesthood to the universal priesthood of believers has been a central theme in Protestant theology, particularly in the Reformation writings of Martin Luther and John Calvin. According to Alister McGrath (1993), this doctrine asserts that every believer has direct access to God through Christ, without the need for an earthly intermediary, thus emphasizing the priesthood of Christ and the participation of all Christians in His work.

The comparative analysis between the Old and New Testament priesthoods reveals a theological trajectory from separation to reconciliation. In the Old Testament, the priesthood served as a means to draw near to God, yet it was marked by distance and limitations due to the imperfect nature of human mediation. The New Testament, however, with the person and work of Christ, opens up a new way for believers to approach God directly. This shift is not just a theological abstraction but has practical implications for Christian worship, ecclesiology, and the identity of believers. According to John Owen (1965), the priesthood of Christ secures the believer’s eternal redemption and grants them the ability to offer spiritual sacrifices of praise and service.

The biblical understanding of priesthood evolves significantly from the Old to the New Testament, with Christ being the fulfillment and culmination of the Old Testament priesthood. The Levitical priesthood’s role in mediating between God and Israel is transformed in the New Testament into a universal and eternal priesthood centered on Christ. This progression emphasizes both continuity and discontinuity in God’s redemptive plan. The priesthood of Christ and the priesthood of all believers redefines the nature of spiritual access to God and the role of the church in the world. Through this transformation, the New Testament offers a deeper and more intimate understanding of the relationship between humanity and the divine, affirming that through Christ, all believers are called to be priests in a spiritual sense, offering their lives as living sacrifices (Rom 12:1).

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The concept of priesthood in the Bible presents a significant theological and interpretive challenge due to the marked differences in its manifestation between the Old and New Testaments. In the Old Testament, priesthood is defined by a hereditary, institutionalized role within the Levitical tribe, where the priesthood is a necessary mediator between God and Israel, rooted in the sacrificial system and ritual purity laws. However, in the New Testament, particularly through the person and work of Jesus Christ, there is a radical shift in the understanding of priesthood, as the focus transitions from a human mediator to Christ’s all-sufficient sacrifice. This transformation has profound implications for Christian theology, ecclesiology, and worship practices. The problem, therefore, is how to reconcile and interpret the continuity and discontinuity between the Old Testament Levitical priesthood and the New Testament priesthood, particularly in light of Christ’s fulfillment of Old Covenant rituals.

A significant difficulty arises when attempting to understand the biblical trajectory from the Levitical priesthood to the priesthood of Christ and the priesthood of all believers. While the Old Testament priesthood is intricately tied to the national and covenantal identity of Israel, the New Testament expands the concept of priesthood to include all believers, irrespective of ethnic or social status. This shift is not merely theological but has ecclesiological and practical ramifications. The challenge lies in interpreting the Old Testament priesthood as both a shadow and a type of the New Testament reality found in Christ. There is a gap in scholarship regarding how the two priesthoods—one based on lineage and ritual, the other on faith in Christ—should be understood in relation to each other. Scholars must clarify whether the New Testament priesthood abolishes or fulfills the Old Testament priesthood, and how this distinction affects Christian practice today.

Another problem lies in the theological implications of the priesthood of Christ, particularly in the book of Hebrews. The author of Hebrews compares Jesus to the Levitical high priest but emphasizes His superiority in multiple dimensions, including His sinlessness, eternal priesthood, and the offering of Himself as the ultimate sacrifice. This raises the question of how to interpret the Old Testament priesthood in light of Christ’s all-sufficient atonement. Did Christ’s high priestly role completely nullify the need for any further mediation, or does it provide a model for Christian believers to follow? There is a lack of consensus on how the nature of Christ’s priesthood alters the understanding of Christian leadership, worship, and ministry. Some scholars argue that the priesthood of Christ abolishes the concept of a mediating priesthood entirely, while others suggest that Christ’s priesthood redefines the role of ministry in the church, making every believer a part of a “priesthood of all believers.”

Furthermore, the application of the “priesthood of all believers” to contemporary Christian practice is another unresolved issue. While the New Testament teaches that all Christians share in Christ’s priesthood, the implications for church leadership, sacramental theology, and ecclesiastical authority remain unclear. In particular, the Protestant Reformation emphasized the universal priesthood of believers as a way to counteract perceived abuses of the Roman Catholic clergy’s role as mediators. However, the theological principle of the universal priesthood does not always translate easily into church structures and practices. The problem is how to interpret the “priesthood of all believers” in a way that both maintains the dignity and function of clergy and affirms the active participation of lay believers in worship, ministry, and service.

The concept of priesthood also presents an interpretive challenge when considering the implications of ritual and sacrifice in the Old and New Testaments. The Levitical priesthood’s role in offering animal sacrifices for the atonement of sins was central to Israel’s covenant relationship with God. However, the New Testament declares that Christ’s death was the ultimate and final sacrifice, rendering animal sacrifices obsolete. Yet, many Christian traditions continue to practice rituals such as communion or Eucharist, which echo the themes of sacrifice. This raises the question of continuity and change: How do these ritual practices relate to the Old Testament sacrificial system? Does the New Testament’s emphasis on Christ’s sacrifice mean that all forms of ritual sacrifice are nullified, or do these practices have a symbolic and memorial role that fulfills the types and shadows of the Old Covenant?

Finally, the problem of intertextual exegesis—how to read and interpret the Old Testament priesthood through the lens of the New Testament—poses a significant challenge. The Old Testament presents a detailed and nuanced understanding of the priesthood, which was integral to Israel’s worship, identity, and covenant with God. However, the New Testament reframes this priesthood in light of Christ’s work. Scholars must grapple with how to interpret Old Testament priestly texts in a way that honors their historical and theological significance while also acknowledging their fulfillment in Christ. There is a tension between a literal, historical interpretation of the Old Testament priesthood and a Christocentric reading that emphasizes its typological and prophetic dimensions. The challenge is to develop a coherent biblical theology of priesthood that does justice to both testaments without distorting either.

1.3. Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study is to examine the Biblical exegesis of priesthood: comparing and interpreting the Old with the New. The specific objectives of the study are:

1. To analyze the role and significance of priesthood in the Old Testament.
2. To examine how the concept of priesthood evolved and was interpreted in the New Testament.
3. To compare and contrast the duties and responsibilities of priests in the Old and New Testament.
4. To explore the theological implications of the changes in priesthood from the Old to the New Testament.

1.4. Research Questions

The research questions are buttressed below:

1. What is the role and significance of priesthood in the Old Testament?
2. How did the concept of priesthood evolve and how was it interpreted in the New Testament?
3. What are the differences and similarities in the duties and responsibilities of priests in the Old and New Testament?
4. What are the theological implications of the changes in priesthood from the Old to the New Testament?

1.5. Research Hypothesis

The hypothetical statement of the study is buttressed below:

Ho: Priesthood does not play any significant role in the Old and New Testament

H1: Priesthood play significant role in the Old and New Testament

1.6. Significance of the Study

The significance of this study lies in its potential to deepen our understanding of the evolving theological concept of priesthood in Scripture. The priesthood in the Old Testament is a cornerstone of Israel’s covenantal life, serving as the means by which God’s holiness and justice were mediated to the people. By comparing the Old Testament priesthood with its New Testament fulfillment in Christ, this study seeks to illuminate how the biblical narrative moves from a physical and ritualistic priesthood to a spiritual and eternal priesthood embodied in Jesus Christ. Understanding the transition from the Levitical priesthood to the priesthood of Christ is not only crucial for biblical exegesis but also for understanding the broader scope of God’s redemptive plan throughout history.

This study also holds great importance for Christian theology, particularly in areas concerning the nature of salvation and the relationship between God and humanity. By examining the typological connection between the Levitical priests and Christ, the study can clarify the profound theological implications of Christ’s role as the perfect high priest who offers a once-for-all sacrifice. This comparison will shed light on how Jesus fulfills the sacrificial system of the Old Covenant and how His priesthood is both a culmination and transformation of the old order. In this way, the study will contribute to our understanding of the work of Christ as the mediator of the New Covenant, particularly in relation to themes such as atonement, intercession, and sanctification.

Moreover, the study addresses a key issue in ecclesiology: the nature of Christian ministry and leadership. The priesthood of all believers, a central tenet in many Christian traditions, can be better understood by examining how the Old Testament’s Levitical priesthood and the New Testament’s universal priesthood relate to one another. The New Testament teaches that all Christians share in the priestly ministry of Christ, yet many ecclesial structures continue to distinguish between clergy and laity. By exploring the theological shift from an exclusive, hereditary priesthood to a universal priesthood, this study can offer valuable insights into the proper roles of church leaders and laypeople, encouraging a more inclusive and biblically informed view of Christian service.

Another key significance of this study is its contribution to the discussion on Christian worship practices. The ritualistic sacrifices performed by the Levitical priests in the Old Testament, particularly those related to atonement and holiness, were central to the worship life of Israel. The New Testament, however, presents Christ’s death as the final, all-sufficient sacrifice, yet Christian traditions continue to practice symbolic forms of sacrifice in rituals like the Eucharist. By comparing and interpreting these practices through the lens of Old and New Testament priesthoods, this study can provide a clearer understanding of how contemporary Christian worship continues the redemptive narrative of the Bible, offering a theology of liturgy that is rooted in both the Old and New Covenants.

This research is also of importance to the field of biblical hermeneutics, particularly in terms of how to interpret the Old Testament in light of the New Testament. The concept of priesthood is one of the clearest examples of continuity and discontinuity between the two testaments. Understanding the priesthood in its Old Testament context and seeing how it is fulfilled and transformed in the New Testament requires a nuanced interpretive approach that honors both the historical and theological dimensions of Scripture. This study will contribute to a broader understanding of how to engage in intertextual exegesis, which seeks to harmonize the Old and New Testaments in a way that is both faithful to the original context and attentive to the fulfillment found in Christ.

Finally, the significance of this study extends to the broader Christian community, as it addresses key questions related to Christian identity, mission, and service. The idea that believers are part of a “royal priesthood” (1 Pet 2:9) challenges Christians to reimagine their role in the world as mediators of God’s grace to others. By exploring the priesthood as a theological and vocational calling, this study can inspire Christians to live out their priestly identity in practical ways, such as advocating for justice, interceding in prayer, and offering their lives as spiritual sacrifices. This holistic understanding of priesthood encourages Christians to embrace their identity as agents of reconciliation, heralds of the gospel, and stewards of God’s kingdom, both within the church and in the world at large.

1.7. Scope of the Study

The study examines the Biblical exegesis of priesthood: comparing and interpreting the Old with the New. The study is limited to selected Priests in Lagos.

1.8. Operational Definition of Terms

1. Biblical Exegesis: Biblical exegesis is the scholarly process of interpreting, analyzing, and explaining the meaning of biblical texts. The goal of exegesis is to draw out the original intent of the text as understood by its original audience, based on linguistic, historical, cultural, and theological contexts. Exegesis involves a careful study of the text’s language, structure, literary genre, and the historical setting in which it was written, as well as understanding how the text relates to other parts of Scripture. The ultimate aim is to derive accurate theological insights and practical applications for the modern reader. In the context of priesthood, exegesis would focus on how the biblical texts define and describe the role, function, and significance of the priesthood.
2. Priesthood: Priesthood, in biblical terms, refers to the role and office of mediating between God and humans. In the Old Testament, it is primarily associated with the tribe of Levi and the descendants of Aaron, whose role was to perform sacrifices, maintain the sanctity of the temple or tabernacle, and intercede on behalf of the people of Israel. The priesthood was central to Israel’s covenantal relationship with God, with the high priest being the supreme religious authority. In the New Testament, the concept of priesthood is redefined through the person of Jesus Christ, who is depicted as the perfect High Priest, offering Himself as the ultimate sacrifice for the sins of humanity. The New Testament also introduces the “priesthood of all believers,” which means that every Christian, by virtue of their relationship with Christ, shares in a spiritual priesthood and has direct access to God.
3. Comparing: Comparing in the context of biblical studies involves evaluating and contrasting two or more elements (in this case, the priesthood in the Old and New Testaments) to highlight their similarities, differences, and development over time. When comparing priesthoods in both Testaments, one would examine the role of the Levitical priesthood, the functions and rituals associated with it, and then contrast these with the New Testament’s teachings on Christ’s priesthood and the priesthood of believers. This comparison helps to understand how the Old Testament priesthood prefigures and is fulfilled in Christ, and how the New Testament radically transforms the idea of priesthood for all Christians.
4. Interpreting: Interpreting refers to the process of understanding and explaining the meaning of a text. In the context of biblical exegesis, interpretation involves discerning what a particular biblical passage or theme (like priesthood) means in its original context, and how it applies to modern readers. Interpreting biblical texts requires careful attention to historical context, linguistic features, theological concerns, and the overarching narrative of Scripture. When interpreting priesthood in the Bible, scholars explore how the role of the priest evolves and how it relates to salvation history, especially in light of the fulfillment found in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
5. Old Testament: The Old Testament, also called the Hebrew Scriptures, is the first part of the Christian Bible, containing sacred writings that were foundational to Judaism and later to Christianity. It includes historical narratives, laws, prophecies, wisdom literature, and poetry that span from the creation of the world to the period of Israel’s exile in Babylon. The Old Testament describes God’s covenant with Israel, His commands, and the role of religious leaders such as priests in maintaining holiness and mediating between God and the people. The Levitical priesthood, particularly outlined in books such as Leviticus, is one of the key aspects of the Old Testament, and its function and significance must be understood in light of the law and the sacrificial system.
6. New Testament: The New Testament is the second part of the Christian Bible and contains the teachings, life, and works of Jesus Christ and the early Christian church. It includes the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John), the Acts of the Apostles, various letters (epistles), and the book of Revelation. The New Testament presents the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy in the person of Jesus Christ, who is described as the ultimate High Priest who offers Himself as a once-for-all sacrifice. The New Testament radically reinterprets the concept of priesthood, with the focus shifting from an ethnic and hereditary priesthood to a universal priesthood through Christ. Additionally, the New Testament teaches that all believers, by virtue of their union with Christ, share in the priestly role, which contrasts with the exclusive Levitical priesthood of the Old Testament.

Project – Biblical exegesis of priesthood: comparing and interpreting the Old with the New