Complete Project- INFLUENCE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY OF PRINCIPALS

INFLUENCE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY OF PRINCIPALS

A STUDY OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN LAGOS STATE

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

PREAMBLE

Change has been happening at an uneven pace in any growth-oriented industry, and the education sector is no exception. Rapid growth in the field of education has made governance in academic sector a very complex task. The 21^st century has witnessed tremendous advancements in technology which has led to far-reaching developments in the administrative system. Cost-effective technology combined with the flexibility in learning and administrative activities is essential to enhance efficiency. Computers can be used extensively for educational administration.

 

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a vital role in supporting powerful, efficient management and administration in education sector. It is specified that technology can be used right from student administration to various resource administration in an education institution (Christiana Maki 2008).

 

CONRIBUTION OF ICT TO ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY

According to Moore (1992) Technology is the application of knowledge to the achievement of particular goals or to the solution of particular problems. This undoubtedly involves deployment and exploitation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in facilitating and accelerating administrative processes in secondary schools. Ward (1995) observed that information Systems (IS) for gathering, storing, processing and disseminating information have been an integral part of each organization’s processes but the arrival of technologies, which, are capable of helping carry out those processes, changing them, eliminating the need for some of them and enabling new processes to be developed, have made the management of (IS) a subject needing specific attention.

 

Over the years, the administrative work of the principal is print-based. Various documents are kept in the form of records. These records provide information on the past, present and anticipated future activities of the school including relevant information from the external environment, which aid decision-making. The  information kept are in the areas of instructional programmes and activities, staff and students personnel services, physical facilities, finance, supervision and interaction with stakeholders outside the school. The principal cannot perform his administrative duties without accurate, timely, sufficient and relevant information. The deficiencies associated with storage, preservation and presentation of large volumes of the information in paper form made managerial processes very cumbersome. Consequently, alternative methods provided by Information and Communication Technology (ICT) became very imperative. The ICT is technology-based and knowledge-driven and is indispensable in the present age.

Vernon (2001) stated that ICT is a collective term covering all those technologies, both hardware and software, dedicated to the capture, storage, and processing, transmission, and presentation of information. The use of ICT in all spheres of human activities has changed the face of the earth. It is used in health delivery, engineering, industry, business, and agriculture, military, security, law, politics and governance, all aspects of arts, science and education among others.

 

According to Hawkridge, Jaworski and McMahon (1990) computers are at the heart of the ICT revolution because they are fast information processing machines, configured to receive input in the form of information, systematically process the input and provide organized information that serve the needs of the user. It has the advantage of improving administrative efficiency and overall quality of the teaching and learning process.

 

Akinyemi (1988) stated that computers used in education are in the form of Computer Managed Instruction (CMI), Computer supported learning Aids (CSLA), Computer Based Education (CBE) and the Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). He further emphasized that in computer managed processing which facilitates decision making for effective administration, classroom management and individual student management, generation, marking, and analyzing tests, grading, diagnosis and the monitoring of the learners progress improves efficiency and productivity of information, performs intensive tasks, carries out repetitive tasks and stores large volumes of data and information. Nwidum (2006) listed ICT in education as motion picture or film, film strip, slide projection, overhead transparency, teletext and video text, the reprographic media are photography, photocopying, scanning and faxing microchips, microfilms and microfiche, voice mail, voice processing, the computer, the internet; multimedia systems are for example computer-based training (CBT), Computer Disc-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM), Compact Disc Interactive (CD-I). Digital Video Interactive (DVI), Interactive Processing Information Services.

 

BENEFITS OF INFORMATION AND COMMNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SECTOR

Rajeev Singh (2008) has specified that ICT has played a major role in reducing operational inefficiency and improving decision-making in many areas of governance. An integrated Higher Education Service System is one such concept that can empower the governing bodies to administer the progress of the education plan in the whole country and serve various stakeholders in a much better manner.

 

According to (Christiana Maki 2008), administrative subsystems include Personnel administration, student administration, resources administration, financial administration and general administration. Ulf Fredriksson and Elżbieta Gajek (2009) mentioned that Communication and general administration are the two main areas in which ICT is used in the management of education institutions. It is evident from the above that administrative activities in a higher education institution consist of student administration, staff and resources administration, communication and general administration.

Olive Mugenda (2006) said ICT fosters the dissemination of information and knowledge by separating content from its physical location. This flow of information is largely impervious to geographic boundaries allowing remote communities to become integrated into global networks and making information, knowledge and culture accessible, in theory, to anyone. It is also mentioned that ICT enhances day-to-day management of institutions and the various functional areas in which it could be used are specified below:

• Timetabling
• Student admission and Tracking
• Financial Management
• Medical services
• Procurement and Store management
• Data distribution and management

ICT is used in maintenance of student and staff records and for communication and document management (OECS 2001). Ashish Kumar and Arun Kumar (2005) have mentioned about the positive perception towards the use of ICT in education. It is mentioned in the study that students of different universities reported the usage of ICT for communication and for on-line discussion forums. ICT facilitated contact and information exchange and also promoted access to higher education. ICTs included systems for student admission and records, examination results and transcripts, finance database, human resources database, and management information.

 

Information administration in this context refers to activities relating to the management of higher education institutions which is often mentioned in other studies as managerial activities in higher education institutions. The administrative systems include Personnel administration, student administration, resources administration, financial administration and general administration (Christiana Maki, 2008).

 

Based on the literature review the three main functional areas of information administration that are of great significance for day-to-day management of higher education institutions was identified as follows:

• Student administration
• Staff administration
• General administration

Student administration is an important and integral part of information administration. This involves various activities commencing from the admission process to learning activities till processing of results and performance analysis. The integration of ICT into this process enhances the overall admission activities of higher education institutions by making it more accessible to many (Thomas Kwaku Obeng 2004).

 

Based on the literature review, the important items identified under this category relates to the automation of admission process through e-media. This includes admission enquiry by students, applying for admissions through electronic media, registration / enrolment using computers, course allotment, and availability of information like timetable / class schedule in electronic form and attendance monitoring / maintenance through e-media.

 

Further it includes the various communications relating to transport, hostel accommodation and other communication to guardians/parents. The integration also helps in expansion of the geographical boundaries for student intake, thus facilitating cross-border higher education.

 

Staff administration includes recruitment and work allotment of faculty and staff in the institution, their attendance and leave management, and performance appraisal. This also includes relevant communication to and from the institutions and among peers. Staff administration done through Information and communication technology (ICT) helps in processing of voluminous records in a quick, meticulous, and impeccable manner thereby making data retrieval easier (Thomas Kwaku Obeng 2004).

 

In general, a good communication system should also be in place for the overall effectiveness of administration. ICT helps in providing a good communication system in higher education system (Magni 2009). ICT helps in providing timely information to all concerned. Communication could be for internal and external information acquisition and dissemination. It includes communication between the important stakeholders of the system such as sending e-circulars to students, faculty and staff. The dissemination of information about the institution using e-kiosks is also a very important item to be considered. The relevant aspects of communication have been clubbed with Student administration and Staff administration for this research study.

 

A very important part of Information administration is general administration of higher education institutions which includes the various day-to-day activities of the entire system. Through literature reviews, it is evident that the integration of ICT into general administration has brought increased efficiency and optimal resource utilization (Hasan et al. 2007). The various items classified under this category include usage of electronic media for scheduling of halls and other resources, fee payment, and handling internal and external examination activities in coordination with the faculty members, all day to-day activities, intra and inter communication etc,.

PROBLEMS OF ICT ON ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY OF PRINCIPALS

Many researchers agree with the idea that ICT’s role is to be a reliable tool to improve the quality of life and this reduces the economic gap between developed and developing countries. Applying ICT to schooling is an urgent task for developing countries to implement (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006). However, there are challenges that the developing world is facing and these make the ‘Digital Divide’ continue not only between countries but also within countries (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006). The hurdles are mainly divided into four categories; a lack of financial resources, poor access to the internet, limited trained teachers, and lack of policy (Gulati 2008; Kozma 1999; Oliveira 1989; Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006; Ruth & Shi 2001).

Despite the keenness of some institutions of higher learning to establish effective ICT education programs, they are confronted with enormous problems that may impede the proper implementation of these programs. The most significant of these is poor ICT penetration and usage among Nigerian higher education practitioners. Almost all African countries’ basic ICT infrastructures are inadequate; a result of a lack of electricity to power the ICT materials and poor telecommunication facilities. Above all, this lack of access to much needed infrastructure is to the result of insufficient funds (Ololube, Ubogu & Egbezor, 2007). Several cities and rural areas in Nigeria still have fluctuation in their supply of electricity which makes the implementation of ICT in education most difficult. Additionally most Nigerian universities do not have access to basic instructional technology facilities, which also makes the integration of instructional technology in the delivery of quality education difficult.

Poor economic conditions and their effect on middle level manpower stand as a major barrier to the implementation of ICTs in higher education. Even an average middle income earner can not afford basic technological communication gadgets. Thus, computer related telecommunication facilities might not be overly useful for most Nigerian students and faculty members, as computers are still very much a luxury in institutions, offices and homes. This has made the integration of necessary on-line resources (e-mail, world-wide-web, etc.) into higher education most difficult (Ifinedo & Ololube, 2007). For example, in an African survey of ten countries (Gillwald & Esselaar, 2005), Botswana has the highest fixed line household penetration while Uganda trails far behind the rest, with penetration under 1%.

According to the Commonwealth of Learning International (2001), another serious challenge facing higher education in Nigeria is the need for integration of new ICT literacy knowledge into academic courses and programs. In this regard, professionals in Nigeria have not been able to benefit from international assistance, international networking and cooperation, or from courses, conferences and seminars abroad, because of lack of funding. This denial of assistance and absence of interaction has had adverse consequences, both on the psyche of faculty and on the implementation of the infrastructure necessary for professional development.

Financial issues

The first issue, which almost all secondary schools administration face, is how to deal with the scarcity of financial resources (Oliveira 1989). Resources in the developing world are always scarce so that they have to be spent mostly on basic supplies such as food, housing and roads. In a sense, investing in ICT for schooling might be regarded as a long term issue which means adopting ICT in the education system is relatively not an urgent issue considering the serious poverty in many African countries. This results in a vicious circle between scarcity of funds and underdevelopedness. When it comes to the controversy of priority of investment between basic services and ICT, both might be linked in the case of education  (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006). One piece of good news about cost is the cost of hardware is decreasing rapidly. The price of PCs and peripherals is reduced to half of the original price every two years. Because of this, the salary of the IT professionals who can teach the new technology is the biggest burden on education budgets and it is followed by software related costs (Oliveira 1989).

Limited internet access

Access to the internet is highly limited in remote areas, and relatively poor infrastructure in developing nations such as  supply of electricity makes this worse (Gulati 2008). Low infrastructure is the fundamental problem for developing countries to deal with and it might take a long time and huge funding to improve. Low literacy rates also hinder locals in remote areas from accessing information through the internet and due to the dominance of English on the internet, non-English speaking local people are isolated from the benefits of using internet (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006).

 

 

 Lack of trained staff

Another challenge faced by administrative personnel in adopting ICT in education systems is as a result of lack of trained teachers (Gulati 2008; Kozma 1999). When it comes to practically applying ICT, which is new to traditional teachers, many may not know how to deal with it and sometimes they are reluctant to accept new technologies in their classrooms. Thus, tutors who can train these teachers about new technology and IT professionals who can technically install and maintain the system are needed.

Lack of policy

Gulati (2008) argues that inappropriate policy and funding decisions may hinder equal educational development in some developing countries. He also asserts that elitism is the most common driver for improper policy. For example, India focuses mostly on the higher education system so the poor do not have enough opportunities to get adequate education even though there is certain technology-enhanced education such as satellite TV learning programs (Gulati 2008). Pressure from industry might be another source of improper policy (Oliveira 1989). Industry lobbyists distort the policy of ICT and education for the purpose of their favour.

The governments in developing nations need to liberalize markets and cut taxes on the ICT industries. For the reasonable and affordable pricing, market liberalization should be accomplished. Cutting taxes also help in increasing affordability resulting in  spreading ICT accessibility(Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006). When it comes to policy advice, Gulati(2008) especially focuses on investing in infrastructure. These actions will help boost sustainable technology enhanced schooling.

ICT AND TEACHERS EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE

The field of education has been affected by ICTs, which have undoubtedly affected teaching, learning and research (Yusuf, 2005) .ICTs have the potential to accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills, to motivate and engage students, to help relate school experience to work practices, create economic viability for tomorrow’s workers, as well as strengthening teaching and helping schools change (Davis and Tearle, 1999; Lemke and Coughlin, 1998; cited by Yusuf, 2005). In a rapidly changing world, basic education is essential for an individual be able to access and apply information. Such ability must find include ICTs in the global village.

 

Conventional teaching has emphasized content. For many years course have been written around textbooks. Teachers have taught through lectures and presentations interspersed with tutorials and learning activities designed to consolidate and rehearse the content. Contemporary settings are now favouring curricula that promote competency and performance. Curricula are starting to emphasize capabilities and to be concerned more with how the information will be used than with what the information is. Contemporary ICTs are able to provide strong support for all these requirements and there are now many outstanding examples of world class settings for competency and performance-based curricula that make sound use of the affordances of these technologies (Oliver, 2000). The integration of information and communication technologies can help revitalize teachers and students. This can help to improve and develop the quality of education by providing curricular support in difficult subject areas. To achieve these objectives, teachers need to be involved in collaborative projects and development of intervention change strategies, which would include teaching partnerships with ICT as a tool. According to Zhao and Cziko (2001) three conditions are necessary for teachers to introduce ICT into their classrooms: teachers should believe in the effectiveness of technology, teachers should believe that the use of technology will not cause any disturbances, and finally teachers should believe that they have control over technology. However, research studies show that most teachers do not make use of the potential of ICT to contribute to the quality of learning environments, although they value this potential quite significantly (Smeets, 2005). Harris (2002) conducted case studies in three primary and three secondary schools, which focused on innovative pedagogical practices involving ICT. Harris (2002) concludes that the benefits of ICT will be gained “…when confident teachers are willing to explore new opportunities for changing their classroom practices by using ICT. As a consequence, the use of ICT will not only enhance learning environments but also prepare next generation for future lives and careers (Wheeler, 2001). Changed pool of teachers will come changed responsibilities and skill sets for future teaching involving high levels of ICT and the need for more facilitative than didactic teaching roles (Littlejohn et al., 2002).

According to Cabero (2001), “the flexibilization time-space accounted for by the integration of ICT into teaching and learning processes contributes to increase the interaction and reception of information. Such possibilities suggest changes in the communication models and the teaching and learning methods used by teachers, giving way to new scenarios which favour both individual and collaborative learning”. The use of ICT in educational settings, by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this domain. ICTs by their very nature are tools that encourage and support independent learning. Students using ICTs for learning purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more students use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves & Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase. In the past, the conventional process of teaching has revolved around teachers planning and leading students through a series of instructional sequences to achieve a desired learning outcome. Typically these forms of teaching have revolved around the planned transmission of a body of knowledge followed by some forms of interaction with the content as a means to consolidate the knowledge acquisition. Contemporary learning theory is based on the notion that learning is an active process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring knowledge and that instruction is the process by which this knowledge construction is supported rather than a process of knowledge transmission (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). In this domain learning is viewed as the construction of meaning rather than as the memorisation of facts (Lebow, 1993; Jonassen & Reeves, 1996). Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many opportunities for constructivist learning through their provision and support for resource-based, student centered settings and by enabling learning to be related to context and to practice (Berge, 1998; Barron, 1998). As mentioned previously, any use of ICT in learning settings can act to support various aspects of knowledge construction and as more and more students employ ICTs in their learning processes, the more pronounced the impact of this will become. Teachers generate meaningful and engaging learning experiences for their students, strategically using ICT to enhance learning. Students enjoy learning, and the independent enquiry which innovative and appropriate use of ICT can foster. They begin to acquire the important 21st century skills which they will need in their future lives.

SECURITY THREATS OF ICT AND ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY OF PRINCIPALS

Administrative staffs are affected by both security and safety issues. The security issues are related to information security risks such as identity theft and computer viruses. The e-safety issues includes information security risks as well as the concerns related to both the physical and mental well being of secondary school students whilst interacting with ICT devices, such as carpal tunnel syndrome or cyber-bulling. Cyber-bullying is any bullying behaviour delivered through technology (Atkinson et al., 2009).

The e-safety concerns (Straker et al., 2009, Atkinson et al., 2009) include:

• Physical effects – such as musculoskeletal discomfort, visual problems and sedentariness
• Content and online interaction concerns – such as inappropriate content, cyber-bullying, financial security and internet predation
• Personal social impact – such as withdrawal, and addictive use of computers
• Identity frauds – where individuals find their details used for fraudulent purposes.
• Internet attacks – encompassing malware, spam, and other types of problems arising from surfing the internet.

 

Sources of ICT security threats can include:

 Human behaviour (human error, negligence, dishonesty, malice)

 Disasters (natural, fire or equipment failure)

 Changing political and financial circumstances

 Lack of training and/or experience

 Geographic circumstances with sites spread throughout the state.

 

Vulnerabilities are characteristics that may be exploited by a threat. Examples include:

 Physical and environmental controls around infrastructure (or lack of)

 Hardware (eg. insufficient maintenance, incorrect installation)

 Software (eg. application and operating system flaws, poor design and testing)

 Communications (eg. use of public Internet, plain text communications)

 Documents (eg. inappropriate storage and disposal, lack of control over copying)

 

 Personnel (eg. lack of training and security awareness, not adhering to policy and procedures)

 Procedural (eg. lack of change control or user maintenance procedures).

The threats to be considered can be accidental or intentional, and be passive (leave no evidence of having occurred, eg. the theft of data) or active (involve the alteration of an information asset, its state or method of operation).

ADMINISTRATIVE COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATIONAL SECTOR

1. Student Administration

• Usage of electronic media by students to apply for admissions
• Usage of computers for student registration / enrolment
• Availability of timetable / class schedule in electronic form
• Communication of academic details of students to their parents / guardians through e-media
• Usage of e-media for notifications regarding hostel accommodation
• Usage of e-media for notifications regarding transportation

 

2. Staff Administration

• Usage of computers for recruitment and work allotment of staff in the institution
• Automation of attendance and leave management of staff members in the institution
• Usage of computers for maintenance of attendance of students
• Communication with staff using e-media
• e-circulars from the institution regarding official matters

 

3. General Administration

• Usage of e-media for scheduling / allocation of halls for examinations
• Usage of e-media for the processing and display of results of students
• Facility for students to make fee payments electronically

 

ICT AND EDUCATION SECTOR

Educational reforms have addressed the technological needs of the 21^st century learners (Beare, 2003). This group, referred to as Millennials or Net-geners (Baron & Maier, 2005), require learning conditions that are different to previous generations. Doherty (2005) claims that: “Teenagers today are so influenced by technology that they learn differently from their parents.” They are digitally literate and socially aware, they prefer group work, are achievement orientated, have short attention spans, are experiential, visual and kinaesthetic in their learning (Baron & Maier). McMahon & Psopisil (2005) describe them as having an information mindset with a focus on immediacy. Their world exists in information technology and digital media, they communicate via SMS, mobile phones, chat rooms and email. The millennial is able to simultaneously play computer games, watch TV and listen to music. They have developed the ability to multi-task, moving from one activity to another with minimum readjustment.

 

This new generation of learners have grown up with technology and are competent in a technological world. As their education requirements are different, old notions of teaching and learning are not applicable, the traditional “chalk and talk” approach of teaching and learning will leave the millennial bored and dissatisfied with their educational experience. Classroom teachers need to review their pedagogical practices to accommodate the new learner and aim to develop systems and structures that excite, engage and motivate the 21^st century learner. To promote lifelong learners for the 21^st century, schools need to use technology to accommodate new learning styles. Administrators in schools are challenged by the integrating of technology into education. This paper will review the issues faced by school administrators to effectively implement technology to satisfy these learners.

 

School organization through Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its use in teaching and learning is a requirement of educational institutions initiated by governments at state and federal level (MCEETYA, 2000, NSW BOS, 2004). School administrators, particularly principals, need to be aware of government expectations. ”All schools will seek to integrate information and communication technologies into their operations to improve student learning, to offer flexible learning opportunities and to improve the efficiency of their business practices” (MCEETYA).

 

Implementing ICT into schools is the responsibility of the school principal, they need to ensure that the best interests of the students are served through effective ICT infrastructure and staff professional development. The principal is responsible that the investment, financial and otherwise, of ICT in the school is beneficial to the whole community. The introduction of ICT over the last twenty years has meant a reassessment of how schools function as a learning community, from teaching and learning to business and administration. The principal’s knowledge of ICT is essential so that systems can be in place to make organizational processes more efficient (Gurr, 2000), including the employment of personnel to manage and administer the ICT infrastructure. Above all the requirements of ICT for administrative reasons, the principal needs to understand that ICT is an essential component in engaging students in learning, it is through the promotion of teachers’ ICT use that effective pedagogy can be realized (Bishop, 2002).

 

ICT INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

The school with an ICT infrastructure allows for networked communities, promoting fast pace communication and information sharing. This allows for a less hierarchical and more flexible organisation, creating a new pattern of learning in schools. Principals, who recognise this, know it can make the school more efficient and transformative (Haughey, 2006). The distribution of power develops a learning school that encourages people at all levels to learn from their work, the organisation values learning so that it can transform itself through dealing with change (Dubrin, Dalglish and Miller, 2006).

 

The promotion of staff professional development in a learning organization can be highlighted in an ICT rich environment where people learn from their work as a regular part of their day to day responsibilities. The principal who encourages personal responsibility for professional learning, by fostering and supporting professional development can create a working environment where staff feel valued and cared for (Gurr, Drysdale and Mulford, 2006).

 

The approach of supplying ICT resources before training is becoming a popular approach to integrating ICT into teaching and learning. More schools are increasing ICT infrastructure without professional development, such as installing interactive white boards in classrooms so teachers are encouraged to experiment in using them. Teachers learn to use ICT through regular and consistent use.

 

• Distributive Administration in the Education Sector

Gurr (2004) stated that individual centered administration is no longer appropriate in an ICT rich environment. ICT administration stems from a shared vision involving the support of the whole school community (Hately and Schiller, 2003). ICT allows others to have a greater influence as school administrators. A distributive view of administration is emerging as a result of ICT integration in schools, further adding to the school administration reforms. The principal’s delegation of an ICT administrator promotes the personal belief in the importance of ICT in the school. The ICT administrator as the expert supplies the principal with advice on ICT. The principal, with the support of the ICT administrator and school community, can develop an ICT vision and e-Learning plan, aimed at developing a sustainable direction for ICT in teaching and learning, administration and business of the school organization.

 

The principal who delegates the responsibilities of administration is able to create a learning community where everyone is given an opportunity to contribute to decision making, thus empowering people by allocating ownership to the shared vision. Dubrin, Dalglish and Miller (2006) describe delegation as a major contribution to empowerment. The encouragement of others to lead fosters greater initiative and responsibility.

The task to become an effective administrator is to develop administration in others (Hartle and Hobby). Harris (2003) suggests that this redistribution of power within the organization will create conditions where people work together and learn together, leading to a shared purpose and common goal. This notion of distributive administration implies a different power relationship than what currently exists in many schools. The distinctions between administrators and followers may blur as the division of labour is widely dispersed, opening the potential for all teachers to be administrators. Shared decision making, distributed administration and professional learning will motivate and empower others (Gurr, Drysdale and Mulford, 2006). This principal is able to set a goal for the development of ICT in the school by delegating the promotion and development to an ICT administrator. The principal develops personally as a powerful administrator by leading the reform, without necessarily being the expert. The ICT administrator gains credit for the accomplishment, giving satisfaction and ownership to the direction and decision involved in the shared vision developed by the principal, in collaboration with the school community.

 

Lee, Gaffney and Schiller (2001) listed the qualities of an ICT administrator as:

• Understanding quality education in a networked world.
• Understanding of ICT as it relates to teaching and learning.
• Valuing the effectiveness of integrating technical and human resources.
• Able to operating within a networked paradigm.
• Appreciative of the importance of knowledge management.
• An excellent net worker.
• Having high level analytical skills.
• Having good interpersonal and management skills.
• Able to oversee the work of other ICT staff.
• Able to lead the change management process.
• Able to provide education for all students in a digital world.
• Able to operate as an assistant or deputy principal.

·        Transformational Administration in the Education Sector

The principal who can delegate responsibility and maintain a clear vision as described here is a transformational administrator. This person has the ability to influence others by aligning the vision with the values of the organization (Dubrin, Dalglish and Miller, 2006).

ICT implementation in schools embraces the successful principal as a transformational leader who can set goals, organize and monitor others and build relationships. This transformational leader is people centered and able to model values and practices consistent with ethos of the school (Day, 2003). Dubrin et al (2006) describe the transformational leader as having a vision for the organisation that is linked to the community’s values. This is a shared vision that uplifts people’s aspirations, creates excitement, provides a purpose for the community and enables people to work together. The ability to create and communicate this in the form of a meaningful vision is an important leadership characteristic (Dubrin, Dalglish and Miller, 2006).

 

The transformational administrator raises the level of human conduct they are visionary, with a commitment to performance, values and standards (Day, Harris and Hadfield, 2001). The principal’s vision sets the goals to be attained with the focus being on teaching and learning (Otto and Albion, 2002). Sweeney (2005) described the qualities of an effective administrator as the ability to lead change, a clear vision and being ICT proficient. A vision with an ICT focus on teaching and learning can create enthusiasm within the community it puts the students at the centre of learning.

A clearly defined vision for ICT includes:

• Planning, funding and implementation;
• Improving access and equity of use;
• Understanding of legal and ethical issues;
• Awareness of learning theory, pedagogy and curriculum development. (Hately and Schiller, 2003)

Principals, in developing a vision, are supported by government initiatives. Learning in online world (MCEETYA, 2001) sets students’ success in ICT use as a target goal for schools. “All students will leave school as confident, creative and productive users of new technologies, particularly information and communication technologies and understand the impact of those technologies on society”.

 

All schools will seek to integrate ICT into their operations to improve students’ learning, offering flexible learning opportunities and improving business practices. These goals identify that it is not only the students who need to be ICT competent, but the whole community.

 

The essential aspect of being the principal of the school as the dominant leader is about commitment to set a vision, to share and work with others in bringing the vision to fruition. ICT in schools is emerging as a central factor for schools to operate efficiently as organizations and as a teaching and learning tool for teachers and students. The principal able to create a vision for the development of an ICT learning community will be a 21^st leader and learner.

 

EMPIRICAL REVIEW OF THE STUDY

According to Hossein (2008), “Information and Communication technology provides several facilities and possibilities for educational administrators to do their tasks”. There is a mention that communication and information systems have changed the very nature of higher education, allowing information to be transferred, stored, retrieved, and processed by almost all who work, study or interact with a given institution. The author has also quoted from other research work that there is an increase in managerial effectiveness and efficiency through usage of Information and Communication technologies The various research studies conducted to evaluate the extent of usage of Information and Communication technologies in multiple aspects of higher education revealed that heads of faculties utilized technology in planning, and to a large extent in the supervision and evaluation of academic affairs, student affairs, financial affairs and administrative affairs. It was concluded that information and communication technologies have an impact on increase of the scientific level of faculty members, students, and staff. Ashish Kumar and Arun Kumar (2005) highlighted the importance of Information Technology (IT) as a modern day techno-management tool that would benefit institutions of higher education in India.

 

Gumala (2005) reported that Spanish and Indian universities have been changing fast due to the development of new Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). The author has mentioned that user satisfaction is a widely used measure of ICT success. The author has concluded by providing a conceptual model for implementing a good technical system. It is mentioned that ICT is used in administration to support the business strategies and processes of higher education institutions, and a “dynamic new shift occurred in higher education” due to the application of ICT in University administration. This facilitated creation of large and complex institutions that could function with increased efficiency and user-friendliness.

 

It is also mentioned that usage of ICT in higher education administration involves “harnessing for better planning, setting standards, effecting change and monitoring results of the core functions of universities. One of the key conclusions arrived at is that the integration of ICTs in higher education is inevitable (UNESCO, 2009).

 

“In the information and technology age, school principals must possess computing capabilities” (Felton, 2006,). They should use technology and understand how it can be used effectively in learning, teaching, and  school administration.

 

Stuart (2009) explored the association between ICT competence of school leaders and the intention to master the ICT. Their findings indicated that the principals who perceived themselves as technology leaders have high levels of ICT competence and that they use ICT frequently in their administrative and instructional tasks. In fact, competence in operating a computer and in utilizing software helps school principals to be effective technology leaders (Stuart et al., 2009). Therefore, principals as technology leaders should be fluent in the basics of word processing, spreadsheets, and presentation software (Attaran & VanLaar, 2001).

 

Anderson and Dexter (2005) suggested that professional development opportunities should be provided for principals to promote their levels of ICT use and to increase their productivities. In fact, effective training programs help the principals to know and utilize computers for accessing and finding information and new knowledge.

 

Furthermore, it helps them to develop processes for effective decision making and problem solving which eventually result in better accountability. The computer technology proved to be able to markedly improve the role of principals in the educational process. Therefore, it is very important for principals to know how to use new and existing technologies.

 

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