Project – Climate Change Adaptation and Agricultural Sustainability Among Smallholder Farmers in Benue State, Nigeria: A Study of Makurdi Local Government Area
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing global environmental and developmental challenges of the twenty-first century, with profound implications for food security, livelihoods, biodiversity, water resources, and sustainable agricultural development. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns resulting from both natural variability and human activities, particularly greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, industrialization, and unsustainable land-use practices (IPCC, 2023). The impacts of climate change are increasingly evident across the world through rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, prolonged droughts, frequent flooding, heatwaves, and changing agricultural seasons, all of which threaten agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods.
Agriculture remains one of the sectors most vulnerable to climate variability because crop and livestock production depend heavily on climatic conditions such as rainfall, temperature, soil moisture, humidity, and seasonal stability. Unlike manufacturing and service industries, agricultural production is directly influenced by weather conditions, making farmers particularly susceptible to climate-induced risks. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2023), climate change threatens global food production through declining crop yields, increasing pest and disease outbreaks, reduced water availability, soil degradation, and declining biodiversity. These challenges have become more severe in developing countries where agriculture is predominantly rain-fed and where farmers possess limited adaptive capacities.
Globally, agriculture supports the livelihoods of approximately 2.5 billion people, with smallholder farmers accounting for nearly one-third of the world’s food production despite cultivating relatively small parcels of land (FAO, 2021). Smallholder farmers play a crucial role in ensuring food security, poverty reduction, rural employment, and economic development. However, these farmers are among the most vulnerable populations to climate change because they often depend on rainfall, have limited financial resources, lack access to modern agricultural technologies, and face constraints in accessing climate information, credit facilities, irrigation infrastructure, and agricultural insurance.
The concept of agricultural sustainability has become increasingly important in discussions concerning climate change and rural development. Agricultural sustainability refers to farming systems capable of maintaining productivity, conserving natural resources, protecting environmental quality, ensuring economic viability, and promoting social well-being for present and future generations (Pretty, 2018). Sustainable agriculture balances increased food production with environmental conservation by encouraging efficient resource use, soil fertility management, biodiversity conservation, climate-smart farming practices, and resilience to environmental shocks.
Climate change poses a serious threat to agricultural sustainability because it affects all components of agricultural production systems. Rising temperatures reduce crop growth periods and increase evapotranspiration, thereby lowering soil moisture and increasing irrigation requirements. Changes in rainfall distribution contribute to delayed planting seasons, shortened growing periods, and increased incidences of drought and flooding. Furthermore, changing climatic conditions facilitate the spread of crop pests, invasive weeds, and livestock diseases that further reduce agricultural productivity (IPCC, 2023).
The increasing frequency of climate-related disasters has heightened global concern regarding adaptation as an essential strategy for sustaining agricultural production. Climate change adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social, economic, and agricultural systems in response to actual or expected climatic changes and their impacts, with the objective of reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience (IPCC, 2023). Unlike mitigation, which seeks to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, adaptation focuses on enabling individuals, communities, and institutions to cope effectively with changing climatic conditions.
Among farming communities, adaptation involves adopting practices that reduce climate-related risks while improving agricultural productivity and livelihood resilience. Such adaptation strategies include changing planting dates, adopting drought-resistant crop varieties, practising mixed cropping, crop rotation, irrigation farming, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, mulching, integrated soil fertility management, water harvesting, livestock diversification, and climate information utilisation (FAO, 2023). These practices not only reduce farmers’ vulnerability to climate shocks but also contribute to long-term agricultural sustainability.
The concept of climate-smart agriculture has gained international recognition as an integrated approach for addressing climate change within agricultural systems. According to the FAO (2021), climate-smart agriculture aims to increase agricultural productivity, strengthen resilience to climate change, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions where possible. Climate-smart agricultural practices combine technological innovation, environmental conservation, institutional support, and farmer knowledge to improve sustainable agricultural outcomes. Consequently, many governments and development agencies now promote climate-smart agriculture as an essential component of rural development policies.
Africa is widely recognised as one of the continents most vulnerable to climate change despite contributing relatively little to global greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC (2023) notes that rising temperatures across Africa exceed the global average in many regions, while rainfall variability continues to increase. Agriculture, which contributes significantly to employment and economic development across Africa, is particularly exposed because approximately 95% of agricultural production remains dependent on rainfall (World Bank, 2021). Consequently, climate variability has intensified food insecurity, reduced rural incomes, increased poverty, and weakened livelihood resilience across many African countries.
Sub-Saharan Africa faces unique adaptation challenges because of widespread poverty, weak institutional capacity, inadequate rural infrastructure, low technological development, limited access to agricultural extension services, and insufficient climate financing. Smallholder farmers frequently lack the financial resources necessary to adopt improved agricultural technologies or invest in irrigation facilities, mechanisation, and climate-resilient farming systems. Consequently, climatic shocks often translate directly into declining agricultural productivity and increased household vulnerability (Morton, 2007).
Nigeria possesses enormous agricultural potential due to its diverse ecological zones, fertile soils, and large farming population. Agriculture contributes substantially to national employment, food production, rural livelihoods, and non-oil economic growth. According to the National Bureau of Statistics (2024), agriculture remains one of Nigeria’s largest employers, engaging more than one-third of the labour force while contributing significantly to the country’s Gross Domestic Product. The sector is dominated by smallholder farmers cultivating less than five hectares of land using predominantly traditional farming methods.
Despite its importance, Nigerian agriculture faces increasing threats from climate change. Rising temperatures, unpredictable rainfall, flooding, desertification, erosion, declining soil fertility, and pest infestations continue to reduce agricultural productivity across different ecological zones. These climatic challenges have affected crop yields, livestock production, fisheries, and household food security. The Federal Ministry of Environment (2021) recognises climate change as a major obstacle to achieving sustainable agricultural development and national food security.
In recent decades, Nigeria has experienced several climate-related events that have significantly disrupted agricultural production. Severe flooding episodes in 2012, 2018, 2022, and subsequent years affected millions of hectares of farmland, displaced farming communities, destroyed crops, and reduced food availability in many states. Similarly, prolonged dry spells and delayed rainfall onset have altered traditional farming calendars, making agricultural planning increasingly uncertain (NiMET, 2024).
Benue State occupies a strategic position within Nigeria’s agricultural economy and is commonly referred to as the “Food Basket of the Nation” because of its substantial production of yam, cassava, maize, rice, soybean, sesame, millet, sorghum, vegetables, citrus fruits, and other food crops. Agriculture constitutes the principal source of livelihood for the majority of households within the state, with smallholder farmers dominating agricultural production. The state’s fertile alluvial soils and favourable climatic conditions have historically supported high agricultural productivity and contributed significantly to national food supply.
However, climate variability has increasingly threatened agricultural production across Benue State. Farmers have reported delayed rainfall onset, shorter growing seasons, flooding, rising temperatures, declining soil fertility, increased weed infestation, and unpredictable weather patterns that negatively affect crop production (Aondona et al., 2022). Seasonal flooding along the River Benue has become more frequent, destroying farmlands, washing away crops, damaging rural infrastructure, and disrupting farming activities. These developments have heightened concerns regarding agricultural sustainability within the state.
Makurdi Local Government Area, which serves as the capital of Benue State, is particularly vulnerable to climate-related agricultural risks because of its geographical location along the River Benue. While the river provides opportunities for irrigation farming, it also exposes surrounding farming communities to recurrent flooding during periods of heavy rainfall. In addition, increasing temperature variability and changing rainfall patterns have affected planting schedules, crop growth, harvesting periods, and overall farm productivity. Consequently, smallholder farmers within Makurdi must continually adjust their farming practices to cope with changing climatic conditions.
Smallholder farmers in Makurdi employ various adaptation strategies to minimise climate-related losses. These include early planting, delayed planting depending on rainfall forecasts, cultivation of early-maturing crop varieties, crop diversification, mixed farming, agroforestry, mulching, application of organic manure, use of improved seeds, irrigation farming during dry seasons, and participation in farmer cooperatives. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these adaptation measures varies considerably depending on farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics, educational attainment, access to extension services, land tenure security, financial resources, climate information availability, and institutional support (Okpe & Aye, 2015).
Access to agricultural extension services plays a particularly important role in promoting climate change adaptation. Extension officers provide farmers with information regarding improved farming practices, climate forecasts, pest management, soil conservation techniques, irrigation methods, and technological innovations capable of improving agricultural resilience. However, several studies indicate that extension service coverage remains inadequate in many rural communities due to insufficient funding, inadequate personnel, poor transportation facilities, and weak institutional coordination (Abaje et al., 2020).
The availability of climate information also significantly influences farmers’ adaptive capacity. Reliable weather forecasts, seasonal rainfall predictions, early warning systems, and agricultural advisories enable farmers to make informed decisions regarding planting dates, crop selection, irrigation scheduling, fertiliser application, and harvesting periods. Unfortunately, many smallholder farmers in Nigeria continue to experience limited access to timely and understandable climate information, thereby reducing the effectiveness of adaptation planning (NiMET, 2024).
Financial constraints further limit climate adaptation among smallholder farmers. Many adaptation technologies—including irrigation equipment, improved seeds, mechanisation, water harvesting facilities, and climate-resilient infrastructure—require financial investments that exceed the capacity of resource-poor farmers. Limited access to agricultural credit, insurance schemes, and government support programmes therefore constrains the adoption of sustainable climate adaptation practices.
Government policies increasingly recognise the importance of climate adaptation for achieving sustainable agricultural development. Nigeria’s National Climate Change Policy, National Adaptation Plan Framework, National Agricultural Technology and Innovation Policy, and Climate Change Act 2021 all emphasise strengthening climate resilience within the agricultural sector through research, extension services, climate information dissemination, sustainable land management, irrigation development, and institutional collaboration (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2021). However, implementation challenges continue to limit the effectiveness of these policy interventions at the local level.
Although numerous studies have examined climate change and agricultural production in Nigeria, relatively fewer investigations have specifically explored how adaptation practices contribute to agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers within Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State. Existing studies often focus on farmers’ perceptions of climate change, vulnerability assessments, or adaptation practices without comprehensively examining the relationship between climate change adaptation and the long-term sustainability of agricultural production. Moreover, changing climatic conditions, evolving government interventions, and emerging climate-smart agricultural innovations necessitate updated empirical evidence to inform policy and practice.
Against this background, this study seeks to examine the relationship between climate change adaptation and agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State. Specifically, the study intends to assess the adaptation strategies adopted by farmers, determine their influence on agricultural sustainability, identify factors influencing adaptation decisions, examine the challenges limiting effective adaptation, and provide evidence-based recommendations for strengthening climate resilience and sustainable agricultural development within the study area.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Agriculture remains the backbone of rural livelihoods and food production in Nigeria, with smallholder farmers accounting for a substantial proportion of domestic agricultural output. In Benue State, popularly known as the “Food Basket of the Nation,” agriculture is the dominant economic activity and the primary source of income for thousands of rural households. Smallholder farmers cultivate staple crops such as yam, cassava, maize, rice, soybean, millet, sorghum, vegetables, and legumes, contributing significantly to food security and the socio-economic development of the state and the nation at large (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2024). However, the sustainability of agricultural production in Benue State is increasingly threatened by the growing impacts of climate change, which have altered traditional farming systems and reduced the resilience of farming communities.
Climate change has become one of the greatest challenges confronting agricultural development globally because of its adverse effects on temperature, rainfall patterns, soil fertility, water availability, pest dynamics, and crop productivity. The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2023) indicates that Africa remains one of the regions most vulnerable to climate change due to its high dependence on rain-fed agriculture, widespread poverty, inadequate adaptive capacity, and weak institutional support. Nigeria is particularly susceptible because over 90 percent of its agricultural production depends on rainfall, making farming activities highly sensitive to variations in weather conditions (FAO, 2023). Consequently, increasing temperatures, prolonged dry spells, delayed rainfall onset, excessive rainfall, flooding, erosion, and pest infestations continue to undermine agricultural productivity and threaten food security.
In Benue State, these climatic changes have become increasingly evident over the past two decades. Farmers now experience irregular rainfall distribution, shorter growing seasons, rising temperatures, recurrent flooding, declining soil fertility, increased weed invasion, and unpredictable seasonal weather patterns. These environmental changes have disrupted traditional planting calendars, reduced crop yields, increased post-harvest losses, and weakened the livelihood security of farming households (Aondona et al., 2022). Makurdi Local Government Area, situated along the River Benue, has experienced repeated flood events that have destroyed farmlands, displaced farming communities, damaged rural infrastructure, and significantly reduced agricultural output. Such recurring climate-related disasters have intensified concerns regarding the long-term sustainability of agriculture within the area.
To minimise these adverse effects, smallholder farmers have increasingly adopted various climate change adaptation strategies, including changing planting dates, cultivating improved and early-maturing crop varieties, practising mixed cropping, crop diversification, agroforestry, mulching, irrigation farming, soil conservation techniques, and integrated nutrient management. These adaptation measures are intended to reduce farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability while improving productivity and ensuring the sustainability of agricultural production (FAO, 2021). Nevertheless, the extent to which these strategies effectively promote agricultural sustainability remains uncertain, particularly within the socio-economic and environmental context of Makurdi Local Government Area.
Despite the growing recognition of climate adaptation as a critical response to climate change, several factors continue to limit its effective implementation among smallholder farmers. Limited access to agricultural extension services, inadequate climate information, poor rural infrastructure, insufficient financial resources, weak institutional support, limited access to improved technologies, insecure land tenure systems, and low adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices continue to constrain farmers’ adaptive capacity (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2021; World Bank, 2021). As a result, many farmers continue to rely on traditional farming practices that are increasingly inadequate for coping with rapidly changing climatic conditions.
Another major concern is that although various government agencies, international development organisations, and non-governmental organisations have introduced programmes aimed at promoting climate-smart agriculture and climate adaptation, the effectiveness of these interventions at the community level remains inconsistent. Many adaptation programmes are constrained by inadequate funding, poor coordination, limited awareness among farmers, weak extension delivery systems, and insufficient monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Consequently, the anticipated improvements in agricultural sustainability have not been fully realised in many rural farming communities.
Furthermore, while climate change adaptation has received increasing scholarly attention, much of the existing literature has focused on farmers’ perceptions of climate change, vulnerability assessments, determinants of adaptation, or the adoption of specific adaptation practices. Comparatively fewer empirical studies have comprehensively examined the relationship between climate change adaptation and agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers within Benue State, particularly in Makurdi Local Government Area. Many earlier studies were also conducted before recent extreme weather events and evolving climate policies, making it necessary to generate updated evidence that reflects current climatic realities and adaptation experiences (IPCC, 2023; FAO, 2023).
A review of existing literature also reveals important contextual and methodological gaps. Several Nigerian studies have examined climate adaptation across broad geographical regions without focusing specifically on flood-prone farming communities in Makurdi, where climate risks differ considerably from those in other ecological zones. In addition, many previous studies have concentrated primarily on identifying adaptation strategies rather than evaluating how these strategies contribute to environmental conservation, economic viability, productivity, and the long-term sustainability of farming systems. This creates a gap in understanding whether adaptation efforts currently being practised by smallholder farmers are sufficient to ensure sustainable agricultural development.
There is also limited empirical evidence regarding the influence of socio-economic characteristics such as education, household income, farm size, farming experience, access to extension services, membership of cooperative societies, access to agricultural credit, and climate information on farmers’ adaptation decisions within Makurdi Local Government Area. Understanding these factors is essential because effective climate adaptation depends not only on environmental conditions but also on farmers’ access to resources, institutional support, technological innovation, and government interventions.
If these issues remain insufficiently addressed, climate change may continue to reduce agricultural productivity, increase rural poverty, worsen food insecurity, and undermine the sustainability of agricultural systems in Benue State. Reduced agricultural output could also affect national food supply, increase food prices, and weaken the livelihoods of rural households that depend almost entirely on farming activities.
It is against these empirical, contextual, and policy gaps that this study is undertaken. Specifically, the study seeks to examine the relationship between climate change adaptation and agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State. The study intends to assess the adaptation strategies currently adopted by farmers, determine their influence on agricultural sustainability, identify factors influencing adaptation, examine the challenges limiting effective adaptation, and provide evidence-based recommendations that will strengthen climate resilience, improve agricultural productivity, and promote sustainable agricultural development in the study area.
1.3 Aim of the Study
The main aim of this study is to examine the influence of climate change adaptation on agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are to:
- examine the climate change adaptation strategies adopted by smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State;
- determine the influence of climate change adaptation on agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area;
- identify the socio-economic and institutional factors influencing climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area; and
- examine the challenges affecting effective climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area.
1.5 Research Questions
The study will be guided by the following research questions:
- What climate change adaptation strategies are adopted by smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area?
- How does climate change adaptation influence agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area?
- What socio-economic and institutional factors influence climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area?
- What challenges hinder effective climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area?
1.6 Research Hypothesis
The study will test the following null hypothesis:
H₀: Climate change adaptation has no significant influence on agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State.
1.7 Significance of the Study
This study is significant because it provides empirical evidence on the relationship between climate change adaptation and agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State. The findings are expected to benefit policymakers, agricultural development agencies, researchers, extension workers, smallholder farmers, non-governmental organisations, and other stakeholders involved in climate change adaptation and sustainable agricultural development.
The findings of this study will be beneficial to smallholder farmers, who are the primary focus of the research. The study will increase their understanding of effective climate change adaptation strategies that can reduce vulnerability to changing weather conditions and improve agricultural productivity. It will provide practical information on sustainable farming practices such as crop diversification, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, improved seed varieties, efficient water management, soil conservation, and climate-smart agriculture. Adoption of these practices will enable farmers to improve farm productivity, reduce crop losses, increase household income, strengthen resilience to climate-related risks, and ensure sustainable agricultural production.
The study will also benefit agricultural extension officers by providing evidence on the adaptation practices currently adopted by farmers and the challenges they encounter. This information will assist extension personnel in designing more effective extension programmes, farmer education campaigns, climate advisory services, and capacity-building initiatives tailored to the specific needs of farming communities in Makurdi Local Government Area. Improved extension services will enhance farmers’ access to modern agricultural technologies, climate information, and sustainable farming techniques.
The findings will be valuable to the Benue State Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, the Federal Ministry of Environment, and other government institutions responsible for agricultural development and climate policy. The study will provide empirical evidence that can guide the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of policies aimed at strengthening climate resilience, improving food security, promoting sustainable agriculture, and enhancing rural livelihoods. It will also assist government agencies in identifying areas requiring increased investment in irrigation infrastructure, climate-smart agriculture, rural extension services, agricultural insurance, and climate adaptation programmes.
The study will equally benefit the National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS), the National Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs), the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NiMet), and the National Agency for the Great Green Wall (NAGGW). These institutions will find the study useful in improving climate information dissemination, early warning systems, disaster preparedness, climate risk management, and agricultural advisory services. The findings will also support evidence-based planning for interventions aimed at reducing farmers’ vulnerability to climate-related hazards.
Development partners and international organisations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the World Bank, the African Development Bank (AfDB), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) will also benefit from the study. The findings will provide useful information for the design and implementation of agricultural development projects, climate resilience initiatives, poverty reduction programmes, and sustainable rural development interventions in Nigeria and other developing countries facing similar climate challenges.
The study will further benefit researchers, lecturers, and students in the fields of agricultural economics, agricultural extension, environmental management, climate science, geography, rural development, and sustainable development. It will contribute to the growing body of literature on climate change adaptation and agricultural sustainability by providing updated empirical evidence from Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State. The study will also serve as a valuable reference material for future studies on climate resilience, sustainable agriculture, food security, environmental sustainability, and rural development.
The findings will also contribute to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). By identifying effective adaptation strategies capable of improving agricultural sustainability, the study supports national and international efforts aimed at enhancing food security, reducing poverty, strengthening climate resilience, and promoting environmentally sustainable agricultural practices.
Finally, the study will contribute to national discourse on climate change adaptation by providing evidence-based recommendations capable of strengthening agricultural sustainability in Benue State and Nigeria as a whole. The findings are expected to assist policymakers and development practitioners in developing integrated adaptation strategies that enhance agricultural productivity while promoting environmental conservation and long-term rural development.
1.8 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on climate change adaptation and agricultural sustainability among smallholder farmers in Benue State, Nigeria, using Makurdi Local Government Area as the study area.
Geographically, the study is restricted to selected farming communities within Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State. The choice of Makurdi is informed by its strategic importance as an agricultural hub, its location along the River Benue, and its vulnerability to recurrent flooding, irregular rainfall patterns, and other climate-related hazards that affect agricultural production.
Content-wise, the study specifically examines:
- the climate change adaptation strategies adopted by smallholder farmers;
- the influence of climate change adaptation on agricultural sustainability;
- the socio-economic and institutional factors influencing climate change adaptation; and
- the challenges affecting effective climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers.
The respondents for the study will comprise smallholder farmers engaged in crop production within Makurdi Local Government Area. The study will not include commercial-scale farmers, pastoralists, or farmers located outside the selected communities. Similarly, while climate change affects livestock, fisheries, forestry, and other sectors, the present study is limited to crop-based smallholder farming systems and their sustainability.
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms
Climate Change: Climate change refers to long-term alterations in average weather conditions, including changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, wind systems, and the frequency of extreme weather events, resulting from both natural processes and human activities.
Climate Change Adaptation: Climate change adaptation refers to the adjustments made by individuals, communities, institutions, and agricultural systems in response to actual or expected climatic changes in order to minimise adverse impacts, reduce vulnerability, and improve resilience.
Agricultural Sustainability: Agricultural sustainability refers to the ability of farming systems to maintain long-term productivity while conserving natural resources, protecting the environment, ensuring economic viability, and supporting the livelihoods of present and future generations.
Smallholder Farmers: Smallholder farmers are agricultural producers who cultivate relatively small parcels of land, typically relying on family labour and limited capital, with production primarily aimed at household consumption and local markets.
Climate-Smart Agriculture: Climate-smart agriculture refers to farming approaches that sustainably increase agricultural productivity, strengthen resilience and adaptation to climate change, and contribute, where feasible, to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Resilience: Resilience refers to the capacity of farmers, farming households, and agricultural systems to anticipate, withstand, recover from, and adapt successfully to climate-related shocks and stresses while maintaining productivity and livelihoods.
Adaptive Capacity: Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of farmers or institutions to adjust their practices, resources, knowledge, and technologies in response to changing climatic conditions.
Agricultural Extension Services: Agricultural extension services refer to organised educational and advisory services that provide farmers with technical knowledge, innovations, climate information, and management practices aimed at improving agricultural productivity and sustainability.
Project – Climate Change Adaptation and Agricultural Sustainability Among Smallholder Farmers in Benue State, Nigeria: A Study of Makurdi Local Government Area
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