Project – Social Media and Public Opinion Formation in Nigeria: A Study of Nigerian Social Media Users

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of the Study

The emergence and rapid expansion of social media have fundamentally transformed the way people communicate, obtain information, express opinions and participate in public discourse. Unlike traditional mass media, which largely operates through one-way communication from media organisations to audiences, social media provides interactive and participatory platforms where users can create, share, comment on and respond to information. Platforms such as Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, YouTube, TikTok and WhatsApp have consequently become important spaces for interpersonal communication as well as political, social and civic discussion.

Social media can be broadly understood as internet-based platforms that enable users to create, distribute and interact with content within networked communities. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) describe social media as a group of Internet-based applications built on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Their work remains one of the foundational academic treatments of social media and explains why users are no longer merely passive consumers of media content.

The significance of social media lies not simply in the number of people who use these platforms but also in the transformation of communication relationships. Individuals can now communicate directly with political leaders, journalists, organisations and other citizens without depending exclusively on traditional media gatekeepers. Castells (2009) argues that communication networks have become central to the exercise of power in contemporary societies because communication processes influence the construction of meaning, identities and public perceptions. Social media therefore provides an environment in which competing interpretations of social and political events can emerge rapidly.

The growth of social media has also transformed the process of public opinion formation. Public opinion refers broadly to the attitudes, beliefs, judgments and preferences held by members of a society concerning issues of public significance. Public opinion is not formed in isolation. It is influenced by interpersonal communication, political institutions, traditional media, social experiences and increasingly by digital platforms. In contemporary societies, social media has become an important arena in which individuals encounter information, discuss public issues and develop or modify opinions.

McCombs and Shaw’s (1972) agenda-setting theory provides an important foundation for understanding how media influence public opinion. Their seminal study demonstrated that the mass media may influence the issues that people perceive as important by giving greater attention to some issues than others. Although developed in the context of traditional mass media, the agenda-setting perspective remains relevant to social media because digital platforms facilitate the rapid circulation and amplification of particular issues.

However, social media differs from traditional media because agenda-setting is no longer controlled exclusively by professional journalists and editors. Users themselves can introduce issues into public discussion, while influencers, activists, politicians, organisations and ordinary citizens can contribute to the visibility of particular topics. Meraz and Papacharissi (2013) describe this process as a form of networked gatekeeping in which social media users and news organisations interact in determining which information receives attention. This makes contemporary public opinion formation more decentralised and participatory.

The networked nature of social media is particularly important. Users are connected through networks of friends, followers, groups and communities. Information can therefore spread rapidly from one individual to thousands or millions of people. A message that begins as an individual’s opinion can become a widely discussed public issue if it is shared repeatedly or amplified by influential accounts. This process has altered the speed and scale of public discourse.

Social media also facilitates what has been described as participatory culture. Jenkins et al. (2009) argue that digital environments can enable individuals to participate in media production and circulation rather than simply consume professionally produced content. This is significant for public opinion because citizens can now actively contribute to political and social conversations through posts, videos, memes, comments, hashtags and other forms of user-generated content.

The relationship between social media and public opinion is particularly important in democratic societies. Democracy depends partly on citizens’ ability to access information, exchange ideas, evaluate competing perspectives and express their views concerning public affairs. Social media can expand these opportunities by lowering barriers to participation. A citizen does not necessarily require access to a newspaper, television station or political organisation before contributing to public debate.

In this regard, social media has been associated with increased opportunities for political participation. Gil de Zúñiga, Jung and Valenzuela (2012), using survey evidence from the United States, found relationships between social media use, social capital and civic and political participation. Their findings contributed to broader scholarship showing that online social interaction can have implications for offline civic engagement.

Similarly, Boulianne (2015), in a meta-analysis of research on social media and participation, found an overall positive relationship between social media use and political and civic engagement, although the strength of the relationship varied across studies and contexts. This suggests that social media can provide opportunities for participation but should not be assumed automatically to produce democratic engagement.

The Nigerian context is particularly important because social media has become deeply embedded in contemporary communication practices. Nigeria has one of Africa’s largest populations and a rapidly expanding digital environment. The DataReportal Digital 2025: Nigeria report documented substantial internet and social media use in Nigeria, reflecting the increasing importance of digital platforms in everyday communication and information consumption.

The expansion of social media in Nigeria has coincided with significant political and social developments. Nigerian citizens increasingly use digital platforms to discuss elections, government policies, economic conditions, insecurity, corruption, human rights, entertainment, religion and other issues of public concern. Consequently, social media has become an important component of Nigeria’s contemporary public sphere.

The 2015 Nigerian general elections demonstrated the growing importance of digital communication in political engagement. Social media platforms provided opportunities for political parties, candidates, journalists, civil society organisations and citizens to disseminate political information and engage with audiences. Adeyanju and Haruna (2012) had earlier documented the emerging role of social media in Nigerian political communication, noting its potential to facilitate political participation and communication between citizens and political actors.

The 2019 general elections further reinforced the importance of social media in Nigerian political communication. Politicians increasingly used digital platforms for campaign communication, while citizens used them to debate candidates and political issues. Social media therefore became an important environment for competing political narratives.

The 2023 Nigerian general election provided another major example. Digital platforms were extensively used for political campaigning, citizen commentary, election-related information and mobilisation. At the same time, the election period demonstrated the challenges associated with misinformation, disinformation, manipulated content and politically motivated narratives circulating online.

The relationship between social media and public opinion in Nigeria must therefore be understood as both an opportunity and a challenge. On one hand, social media can expand access to information, increase citizens’ ability to express themselves and provide opportunities for previously marginalised voices to participate in public discussions. On the other hand, the same characteristics that facilitate rapid communication can enable false information and unverified claims to spread quickly.

One of the most significant concerns is misinformation. Wardle and Derakhshan (2017), in their Council of Europe report, distinguish among misinformation, disinformation and mal-information. Misinformation involves false information shared without necessarily intending to cause harm, while disinformation involves deliberate creation or dissemination of false information to cause harm. These distinctions are important when examining social media because the circulation of inaccurate information can influence individuals’ perceptions of public issues regardless of whether the original sender intended to deceive.

Social media users may encounter large quantities of information without always having the ability or motivation to verify its accuracy. This creates conditions in which emotionally appealing, controversial or sensational claims can spread rapidly. Vosoughi, Roy and Aral (2018), in a large-scale study of information diffusion on Twitter, found that false news travelled farther, faster, deeper and more broadly than truthful news. Their findings demonstrate the potential difficulty of maintaining accurate public discourse within highly networked information environments.

The problem of misinformation is particularly important in Nigeria because social media discussions frequently concern emotionally charged political, ethnic, religious and socioeconomic issues. When unverified claims are repeatedly circulated within online communities, users may accept them as credible because they encounter them from multiple people in their network.

Another important factor is selective exposure. Social media platforms enable users to choose whom they follow, which groups they join and what information they consume. This can result in users being repeatedly exposed to opinions that correspond with their existing beliefs. Sunstein (2017) argues that digital environments can contribute to information environments in which individuals encounter increasingly similar viewpoints, potentially reinforcing ideological divisions.

This issue relates to the concept of echo chambers, where individuals interact predominantly with others who hold similar opinions. Within such environments, repeated exposure to similar perspectives can strengthen existing beliefs and reduce opportunities for meaningful engagement with alternative viewpoints. Although the empirical evidence concerning the scale and effects of echo chambers is complex, the possibility remains relevant to public opinion formation in social media environments.

Social media algorithms may further influence what users see. Unlike traditional media where editors determine much of the content presented to audiences, social media platforms use algorithmic systems to rank, recommend and personalise content. Users may therefore receive information partly based on their previous interactions, interests and network connections. This means that the formation of public opinion may be influenced not only by the content itself but also by the technological systems determining content visibility.

The concept of framing is also relevant. Entman (1993) explains that framing involves selecting aspects of perceived reality and making them more salient within communication. On social media, individuals can frame public issues through captions, images, videos, hashtags and selective presentation of information. Different users may therefore present the same event in substantially different ways, potentially influencing how audiences interpret it.

Social media influencers are another important component of public opinion formation. Influencers can attract large audiences and may shape perceptions concerning politics, public policies, social issues, brands and cultural questions. In Nigeria, prominent political commentators, celebrities, activists, journalists, religious figures and online personalities can reach large audiences without necessarily operating through traditional media organisations.

The influence of such individuals raises questions about credibility and authority. Traditional journalism has professional norms concerning verification, sourcing and editorial responsibility. Social media users, by contrast, may have substantial influence without being subject to equivalent professional standards. As a result, popularity and visibility may sometimes become more important than accuracy in determining which opinions receive attention.

Social media also provides opportunities for citizen journalism. Citizens can use smartphones to document events and distribute information immediately. This has the potential to expose issues that might otherwise receive limited attention from traditional media. During protests, elections, disasters and other public events, social media users can provide real-time information from locations where professional journalists may not be present.

The Nigerian #EndSARS protests of 2020 illustrate the importance of social media in contemporary public discourse. Social media platforms played significant roles in mobilisation, information sharing, documentation and international visibility of the protests. George and Ogunyemi (2021) discuss the role of social media in the #EndSARS protests and demonstrate how digital communication facilitated mobilisation and the circulation of protest-related narratives.

The #EndSARS experience also demonstrates the capacity of social media to transform individual grievances into collective public conversations. Hashtags can provide common points around which users organise information and express shared positions. In this sense, social media can contribute to the development of networked forms of collective identity.

However, digital mobilisation does not necessarily produce consensus. The same platforms can facilitate counter-narratives, polarisation and conflict. Users may interpret the same events differently depending on political, ethnic, religious or socioeconomic orientations. Consequently, social media can simultaneously create opportunities for public dialogue and deepen disagreement.

The role of social media literacy is therefore increasingly important. Users require the ability to evaluate sources, identify manipulated content, distinguish opinion from fact and verify claims before sharing them. Guess, Nagler and Tucker (2019) found that education was associated with reduced likelihood of sharing false news on Facebook in their study of American users. Although the study was not conducted in Nigeria, it illustrates the importance of individual characteristics and information literacy in determining how users interact with misinformation.

In Nigeria, digital literacy therefore has implications not only for access to technology but also for the quality of public discourse. A population with access to social media but limited capacity to evaluate information may be particularly vulnerable to misleading content.

Social media also interacts with traditional media rather than completely replacing it. News stories from newspapers and television stations are frequently shared on social media, while journalists increasingly monitor social media for breaking stories and public reactions. Consequently, public opinion formation takes place within a hybrid media environment in which traditional and digital media continuously influence one another.

Chadwick (2017) conceptualises this interaction through the idea of a hybrid media system, where older and newer media logics interact. This is relevant to Nigeria because many newspapers, radio stations and television organisations maintain active social media accounts, while social media trends can subsequently become topics of discussion on traditional media.

The relationship between social media and public opinion is therefore multidirectional. Government institutions communicate with citizens; political actors communicate with supporters; journalists distribute news; influencers frame issues; citizens generate content; and users respond to one another. Public opinion emerges from the interaction of these different actors within a constantly changing communication environment.

Despite these opportunities, concerns remain regarding the quality of information available to Nigerian social media users. The speed of digital communication can encourage people to share information before verifying it. Political actors and organised groups may also deliberately circulate misleading narratives to influence public attitudes. This creates challenges for citizens attempting to make informed judgments about public affairs.

Another concern is political polarisation. Social media can strengthen political identities by allowing users to interact with like-minded individuals and attack opposing viewpoints. Political discussions may therefore become less focused on evidence and more focused on identity, loyalty and emotional reactions. This can negatively affect the quality of democratic deliberation.

There is also a concern about privacy and surveillance. Social media platforms collect significant quantities of information about their users, including behavioural and interaction data. These data can potentially be used to target users with particular messages. The Cambridge Analytica scandal demonstrated how personal data and digital platforms could become connected to political communication and targeted persuasion. Although the specific circumstances of the case differed across countries, the broader issue highlights the importance of data governance in modern political communication.

Public opinion formation is consequently no longer simply a process of citizens reading newspapers or watching television and then developing attitudes. It involves complex interactions among algorithms, networks, influencers, political actors, journalists, personal experiences and peer communication.

In Nigeria, these developments create an important research problem. Although social media usage has expanded considerably, there is still a need to understand how Nigerian social media users form and modify opinions as a result of their exposure to social media content. It is important to determine whether users primarily obtain information from social media, whether they verify information before accepting or sharing it, whether interaction with other users influences their opinions, and whether exposure to social media contributes to political and social polarisation.

The study is therefore important because public opinion has consequences for democratic governance. Citizens’ perceptions influence voting behaviour, political participation, policy debates, trust in institutions and responses to social issues. If social media significantly influences public opinion, understanding the mechanisms through which that influence occurs becomes essential for policymakers, journalists, civil society organisations and citizens.

Against this background, the study examines Social Media and Public Opinion Formation in Nigeria: A Study of Nigerian Social Media Users. It seeks to investigate the relationship between social media use and the formation of opinions among Nigerian users, while paying particular attention to information exposure, interaction, credibility assessment and the potential influence of social media on attitudes toward public issues.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The rapid growth of social media has transformed communication and information consumption in Nigeria. Millions of Nigerians now use platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, TikTok and X to obtain information, communicate with others and discuss public issues. Social media has consequently become an important component of the Nigerian information environment.

However, the increasing dependence on social media for information raises concerns about the quality, reliability and influence of information consumed by users. Unlike traditional media organisations, where editorial procedures may provide mechanisms for fact-checking and accountability, social media allows virtually anyone to create and distribute information to potentially large audiences. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) note that user-generated content is a defining characteristic of social media, making users active participants in information production and distribution.

The central problem is that Nigerians may form opinions about important social, political and economic issues based on information whose accuracy has not been adequately established. False or misleading information can circulate rapidly, particularly when it is emotionally appealing or politically controversial. Vosoughi et al. (2018) found that false news on Twitter spread significantly farther and faster than truthful information, illustrating the potential of social networks to amplify inaccurate information.

This problem is particularly serious when social media information concerns elections, political candidates, government policies, insecurity, ethnic relations, religion, public health and other sensitive issues. Opinions formed from inaccurate information may influence citizens’ attitudes, behaviours and decisions.

A related problem is selective exposure and opinion reinforcement. Social media users can choose the accounts, groups and communities they interact with, creating the possibility that they will primarily encounter information that confirms their existing beliefs. Sunstein (2017) argues that digital environments can contribute to fragmented information environments in which individuals are increasingly exposed to viewpoints similar to their own.

Such environments may contribute to political and social polarisation. Instead of encouraging citizens to evaluate competing arguments, social media discussions may sometimes reinforce existing loyalties and encourage hostility towards opposing viewpoints. This is particularly concerning in a diverse country such as Nigeria, where political, ethnic, religious and regional identities can intersect with public debates.

Another problem is the growing influence of social media influencers and non-professional information sources. Individuals with large online followings can influence public opinion even when they do not possess professional expertise in the subjects they discuss. Their popularity may create perceptions of credibility that are not necessarily based on evidence or professional qualifications.

The problem is further complicated by the use of algorithms and personalised content recommendation. Social media users do not necessarily encounter a neutral representation of all available information. Platform algorithms determine, to varying degrees, which posts, videos and accounts receive visibility. Consequently, users’ opinions may be influenced by both the content they encounter and the systems that determine what content is presented to them.

Another concern is the limited level of information verification among some social media users. Users may share information because it comes from friends, family members or influential accounts without checking the original source. The rapid pace of social media communication creates pressure to respond quickly, which may encourage information sharing before verification.

The Nigerian experience during major political and social events has demonstrated the significance of this problem. Social media has played important roles in political mobilisation, election communication and social movements, including the #EndSARS protests. While these platforms can provide citizens with opportunities to express legitimate grievances and mobilise collectively, they can also facilitate the rapid circulation of unverified claims and competing narratives.

Another problem is the relationship between social media exposure and public trust. If citizens repeatedly encounter conflicting information, misinformation or politically motivated content, they may become uncertain about which sources to trust. This can weaken confidence not only in social media but also in government institutions, journalists and other information providers.

The issue is also significant because public opinion can influence democratic processes. Citizens use information obtained from social media when evaluating political leaders, policies and public institutions. If the information environment is distorted, the quality of public decision-making may also be affected.

Although previous studies have examined social media use, political participation and misinformation, there remains a need to examine specifically how Nigerian social media users form public opinions through their everyday interaction with social media content. Existing research often focuses on political participation or specific political events rather than the broader process through which repeated exposure, interaction, sharing, credibility assessment and network relationships contribute to opinion formation.

Furthermore, much of the established literature on social media and public opinion has been produced in Western contexts. Findings from these settings cannot automatically be generalised to Nigeria because information environments, political institutions, cultural relationships, levels of digital literacy and patterns of social media use differ across societies.

The problem, therefore, is not simply that Nigerians use social media extensively. The deeper problem is the uncertainty surrounding the extent to which social media exposure, interaction and information-sharing practices shape the opinions Nigerians hold about issues of public significance.

This study consequently seeks to investigate the relationship between social media use and public opinion formation among Nigerian social media users. It will examine social media exposure, frequency of use, interaction with online content, information credibility assessment and the extent to which social media influences users’ opinions about public issues.

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study

1.2.1 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to examine the influence of social media on public opinion formation among Nigerian social media users.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

The study seeks to:

1. examine the extent to which social media exposure influences public opinion formation among Nigerian social media users;
2. determine the relationship between frequency of social media use and public opinion formation among Nigerian users;
3. examine the influence of interaction with social media content on users’ opinions about public issues;
4. determine the extent to which perceived credibility of social media information influences public opinion formation; and
5. examine the influence of social media on users’ attitudes towards major social and political issues in Nigeria.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. To what extent does social media exposure influence public opinion formation among Nigerian social media users?
2. What relationship exists between frequency of social media use and public opinion formation among Nigerian users?
3. To what extent does interaction with social media content influence users’ opinions about public issues?
4. What influence does perceived credibility of social media information have on public opinion formation?
5. To what extent does social media influence users’ attitudes towards major social and political issues in Nigeria?

1.4 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between social media use and public opinion formation among Nigerian social media users.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to Nigerian social media users because it will increase awareness of the ways in which social media information, interactions and networks can influence opinions. The findings may encourage users to develop more critical approaches to evaluating information before accepting or sharing it.

The study will benefit policymakers and government institutions by providing evidence concerning the role of social media in shaping public perceptions of government policies and public issues. This may assist government institutions in developing more effective communication and public-engagement strategies.

The study will be useful to journalists and media organisations because it will provide insight into how audiences consume and interpret information obtained from social media. This may encourage stronger fact-checking practices and more effective approaches to digital journalism.

The study will also benefit civil society organisations and fact-checking organisations. Understanding how Nigerian users form opinions online may assist these organisations in designing digital-literacy and misinformation-awareness campaigns.

Political parties and political actors may also find the study useful in understanding how social media communication influences citizens’ perceptions. However, the findings may equally highlight the importance of responsible political communication and discourage the deliberate dissemination of misleading information.

The study will be relevant to educational institutions, particularly departments of mass communication, journalism, political science, sociology and media studies. It will provide empirical evidence that can contribute to teaching and research on digital communication and public opinion.

Academically, the study will contribute to the growing body of literature on social media, public opinion, political communication and digital society in Nigeria. It will also provide a Nigerian perspective to a field in which much of the established theoretical and empirical literature has emerged from other countries.

Finally, the study will serve as a useful reference for future researchers investigating social media influence, misinformation, digital political communication, public opinion and online civic engagement.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on Social Media and Public Opinion Formation in Nigeria, using Nigerian social media users as the population of interest.

The independent variable is social media use, while the dependent variable is public opinion formation.

Social media use will be examined through dimensions such as:

• frequency of use;
• duration of use;
• exposure to social and political content;
• interaction with online content;
• sharing of information; and
• engagement with influencers and online communities.

Public opinion formation will be examined in relation to:

• attitudes towards public issues;
• perceptions of government and political actors;
• acceptance or rejection of information;
• influence of peer opinions; and
• changes in users’ views following social media exposure.

The study focuses on Nigerian social media users who actively use platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, X, YouTube and TikTok. The study does not attempt to examine every aspect of social media behaviour or every form of public opinion in Nigeria.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Social Media: Internet-based platforms that enable users to create, share, distribute and interact with user-generated content within networked communities (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).

Social Media Use: The frequency, duration, intensity and manner in which individuals access, consume, interact with and share content through social media platforms.

Public Opinion: The collective or individual attitudes, beliefs, judgments and perceptions that people hold concerning issues of public significance.

Public Opinion Formation: The process through which individuals develop, reinforce, modify or reject opinions about public issues as a result of information, communication, personal experiences and social interaction.

Social Media Exposure: The extent to which individuals encounter information, messages, images, videos and opinions through social media platforms.

Information Credibility: The degree to which a social media user perceives information as accurate, reliable, trustworthy and believable.

Misinformation: False or inaccurate information that is shared without necessarily involving an intention to deceive (Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017).

Disinformation: False or deliberately manipulated information that is created or distributed with an intention to deceive or cause harm (Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017).

Social Media Influencer: An individual who has developed a substantial online following and whose content, opinions or recommendations can influence the attitudes or behaviour of followers.

Political Communication: The process through which political actors, media organisations and citizens exchange information, ideas, opinions and messages concerning politics and public affairs.

Digital Literacy: The ability to access, understand, evaluate, create and responsibly communicate information using digital technologies.

Echo Chamber: An online environment in which individuals are predominantly exposed to information and opinions that reinforce their existing beliefs.

Algorithmic Personalisation: The use of automated technological systems to select, rank or recommend content to individual users based partly on their previous activities, interests and network connections.

User-Generated Content: Digital content such as text, photographs, videos, comments, posts and other materials created and distributed by ordinary users rather than exclusively by professional media organisations.

Social Media Engagement: The ways users interact with online content, including liking, commenting, sharing, reposting, reacting, following and participating in discussions.

1.8 Organisation of the Study

The study will be organised into five chapters.

Chapter One presents the introduction, background of the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, hypothesis, significance of the study, scope and operational definition of terms.

Chapter Two will review relevant literature on social media and public opinion formation. It will cover the conceptual framework, theoretical framework and empirical review of related studies.

Chapter Three will present the research methodology, including research design, population of the study, sample size, sampling technique, research instrument, validity and reliability, data collection procedure and method of data analysis.

Chapter Four will present and analyse the data obtained from respondents and test the research hypothesis at the 0.05 level of significance.

Chapter Five will discuss the findings, present the conclusion and recommendations, and identify areas for further research.

Project – Social Media and Public Opinion Formation in Nigeria: A Study of Nigerian Social Media Users