Project – Assessment of Causes of Building Failure and Preventive Measures in Selected Residential Buildings in Lagos State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Buildings constitute one of the most important components of the built environment because they provide spaces for human habitation, economic activities, education, healthcare and other social functions. Residential buildings, in particular, are essential to the welfare and socio-economic development of individuals and communities. The safety, durability and serviceability of such buildings depend on appropriate planning, sound structural design, suitable construction materials, competent workmanship, adequate supervision and proper maintenance throughout the life of the building. Where any of these components is compromised, defects may develop and progressively reduce the structural integrity and functional performance of a building. In Nigeria, the recurring incidence of building defects, structural distress and building collapse has therefore become an important concern within the construction and property sectors. Oseghale, Ikpo and Ajayi (2015) identified several factors responsible for building collapse in Nigeria, including substandard materials, poor workmanship, incompetent contractors, faulty construction methods, inadequate supervision and defective design.

Building failure can occur in different forms and at different levels of severity. Some failures manifest as cracks in walls, floors or structural members, excessive deflection, settlement, dampness, corrosion, leakage and deterioration of concrete, while more severe failures may involve partial or complete structural collapse. Building failure is therefore not restricted to the dramatic event of total collapse; rather, it may represent a progressive deterioration of the building’s ability to perform its intended function safely and satisfactorily. The causes may be technical, managerial, environmental, economic or institutional, and may interact with one another throughout the building life cycle. In a study specifically examining Lagos State, Imafidon and Ogbu (2020) grouped causes of building collapse into design and construction-related, policy-related and quality-related categories, identifying poor maintenance culture, change of building use and substandard construction materials among the important factors associated with building failure.

Lagos State presents a particularly important setting for examining building failure because of its rapid urban development, high demand for residential accommodation and continuous construction activity. The pressure created by population growth, housing demand and urban expansion has contributed to the development of new residential structures as well as alterations and conversions of existing buildings. Where construction activity expands faster than effective monitoring and compliance mechanisms, risks associated with poor workmanship, unauthorized alterations, inadequate supervision and non-compliance with approved designs may increase. Salau and Anifowose (2026) observed that Lagos continues to experience recurrent building collapse despite the existence of regulatory institutions such as the Lagos State Building Control Agency (LASBCA), the Lagos State Physical Planning Permit Authority (LASPPPA) and the Lagos State Materials Testing Laboratory (LSMTL). They further associated the continuing problem with factors including non-compliance, inadequate supervision, limited institutional capacity and enforcement challenges.

The quality of construction materials is another critical consideration in the assessment of building failure. Materials such as cement, aggregates, reinforcement steel, sandcrete blocks and concrete must possess appropriate properties and be used according to relevant specifications and construction requirements. The use of substandard, adulterated or inappropriate materials can reduce the strength and durability of structural components and increase the likelihood of premature deterioration or failure. Ezema and Olatunji (2018), in their investigation of building collapse in Lagos State, emphasized the importance of quality control in concrete materials, batching and placement, particularly within the informal sector of the construction industry. Similarly, Oseghale et al. (2015) identified poor-quality building materials and poor workmanship among the major factors contributing to building collapse in Lagos State and Nigeria generally. These findings demonstrate the importance of examining material quality as part of a comprehensive assessment of residential building failure.

Workmanship and professional competence are equally important in determining the performance of residential buildings. Even where appropriate designs and quality materials are available, improper execution of construction activities can compromise structural safety. Errors in reinforcement placement, concrete mixing, curing, foundation construction, blockwork, roof installation and other construction operations may introduce weaknesses into a building. In addition, the use of unqualified contractors or workers and inadequate supervision can increase the possibility that construction activities will deviate from approved specifications. Oseghale et al. (2015) found poor workmanship, incompetent contractors, faulty construction methodology and inadequate supervision among the significant causes of building collapse in Lagos State. More recent evidence from Azeez et al. (2026) similarly identified poor workmanship and weak regulatory oversight as important concerns in relation to construction materials and building collapse in Lagos.

The physical and environmental characteristics of Lagos also require attention when assessing building failure. Lagos contains areas characterized by coastal and low-lying terrain, and some locations may be susceptible to soil-related problems, flooding and land subsidence. Foundation performance depends substantially on the characteristics and bearing capacity of the underlying soil and on appropriate geotechnical investigation before construction. Failure to properly investigate site conditions can result in foundation settlement, differential movement and structural distress. A study by Bekaert et al. (2023) demonstrated the relevance of land subsidence to building failure risk in Lagos, linking differential ground movement with foundation damage and identifying areas exposed to varying levels of building-collapse risk. This indicates that preventive strategies should not focus exclusively on workmanship and construction materials but should also incorporate site investigation, foundation design, drainage and environmental conditions.

Maintenance is also a fundamental component of preventing building failure because buildings are exposed to weather, moisture, loading, chemical action and general wear throughout their service life. A building that was properly designed and constructed can nevertheless develop serious defects if routine inspection and maintenance are neglected. Roof leakage, corrosion of reinforcement, cracks, water penetration, foundation-related movement and deterioration of finishes may worsen over time when corrective measures are delayed. Imafidon and Ogbu (2020) identified poor maintenance culture as one of the prominent causes within the design and construction-related classification of building collapse causes in Lagos State. Similarly, Okunola et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of proactive and reactive measures for reducing building-collapse risks in Lagos, indicating that prevention requires attention not only during construction but also throughout the operational life of buildings.

The prevention of building failure therefore requires an integrated approach involving building owners, developers, architects, engineers, builders, quantity surveyors, contractors, government agencies and occupants. Preventive measures may include proper site investigation, compliance with approved building plans, appropriate structural design, quality testing of construction materials, employment of competent professionals, adequate site supervision, proper construction methods, regular building inspection and timely maintenance. Regulatory agencies also have important responsibilities in ensuring that construction activities comply with approved standards and planning requirements. Salau and Anifowose (2026) found that although regulatory supervision and enforcement roles are recognized in Lagos State, their effectiveness may be constrained by political interference, corruption, inadequate manpower, limited technological capacity and weak inter-agency coordination. Consequently, a systematic assessment of the causes of building failure and practical preventive measures is necessary, particularly in relation to residential buildings where structural failure can directly threaten the lives and property of occupants.

It is against this background that this study seeks to assess the causes of building failure and preventive measures in selected residential buildings in Lagos State. The study recognizes building failure as a multidimensional problem involving technical, material, workmanship, environmental, maintenance and regulatory factors. By examining these factors together, the study is expected to provide evidence on the major causes of residential building failure and the preventive practices that can reduce the occurrence and severity of such failures. The study will also contribute to improving awareness among building owners, developers, professionals and other stakeholders concerning the importance of quality construction, proper supervision, regular inspection and preventive maintenance.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Building failure has remained a serious concern in Nigeria because of its potential to cause loss of lives, destruction of property, displacement of occupants and financial losses to building owners and other stakeholders. Residential buildings are particularly important because failure occurring in occupied buildings can expose residents to serious safety risks. Although building regulations, professional standards and regulatory agencies exist, incidents of structural failure and collapse continue to occur. The persistence of the problem suggests that the existence of regulations alone may not be sufficient to guarantee building safety. Oseghale et al. (2015) identified substandard materials, poor workmanship, incompetent contractors, faulty construction methodology, inadequate supervision and structural defects among the major causes of building collapse in Lagos State.

A second problem relates to the quality and execution of construction activities. Some residential buildings may be constructed using materials that do not meet the required standards or using construction procedures that do not conform to approved designs and specifications. Poor concrete production, inadequate reinforcement, improper curing, weak blockwork and poor foundation practices can introduce defects that may become more serious with time. Ezema and Olatunji (2018) noted that quality control of concrete materials, batching and placement is important in addressing building collapse in Lagos, particularly because weaknesses in construction-material quality can affect the structural components of buildings. The continued presence of such challenges creates a need to identify the extent to which material quality and construction practices contribute to building failure in selected residential buildings.

Another problem is the inadequate maintenance and monitoring of existing residential buildings. Building owners and occupants may sometimes fail to conduct regular inspections or respond promptly to visible defects such as cracks, water penetration, corrosion, settlement or structural deformation. Changes in the original use of a building, unauthorized alterations, additions and increased loading may also place stresses on structures beyond what was considered in the original design. Imafidon and Ogbu (2020) identified poor maintenance culture and change of building use as significant categories of causes of building collapse in Lagos State. Similarly, Okunola et al. (2022) emphasized the need for proactive and reactive disaster-risk reduction measures to prevent and respond to building-collapse incidents in Lagos.

The persistence of building failure also raises questions concerning regulatory enforcement, professional supervision and preventive practices. Lagos State has established institutions responsible for planning approval, building control and materials testing, yet recurrent failures indicate that gaps may exist between regulatory requirements and actual construction practices. Salau and Anifowose (2026) reported that regulatory effectiveness in Lagos is constrained by factors including political interference, corruption, inadequate manpower, limited technological capacity and poor inter-agency coordination. Furthermore, environmental factors such as land subsidence can increase the risk of structural distress in vulnerable areas of Lagos (Bekaert et al., 2023). The problem, therefore, is not merely the occurrence of individual building defects but the combined influence of construction quality, professional practices, maintenance, environmental conditions and regulatory enforcement. This study consequently seeks to assess the major causes of building failure and the preventive measures applicable to selected residential buildings in Lagos State.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to assess the causes of building failure and preventive measures in selected residential buildings in Lagos State.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study are to:

1. identify the major causes of building failure in selected residential buildings in Lagos State;
2. examine the extent to which construction materials, workmanship, design and supervision contribute to building failure in the selected residential buildings;
3. assess the preventive and maintenance measures adopted to reduce building failure in the selected residential buildings; and
4. examine the challenges affecting the effective implementation of preventive measures against building failure in the selected residential buildings in Lagos State.

1.5 Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. What are the major causes of building failure in selected residential buildings in Lagos State?
2. To what extent do construction materials, workmanship, design and supervision contribute to building failure in the selected residential buildings?
3. What preventive and maintenance measures are adopted to reduce building failure in the selected residential buildings?
4. What challenges affect the effective implementation of preventive measures against building failure in Lagos State?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between the identified causes of building failure and the occurrence of building failure in selected residential buildings in Lagos State.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study will be beneficial to residential building owners and property developers because it will provide information on the factors that can compromise the safety and durability of residential buildings. The findings may help owners and developers appreciate the importance of employing competent professionals, using approved construction materials, following approved designs and conducting regular inspections and maintenance.

The study will also be useful to architects, civil/structural engineers, builders and quantity surveyors. It will provide information concerning recurring causes of building defects and failures, thereby reinforcing the importance of professional competence, quality control, supervision and compliance with construction specifications. The findings may also assist built-environment professionals in developing more effective preventive practices.

The study will benefit government and regulatory agencies, particularly institutions responsible for planning approval, building control, inspection and materials testing. The findings may assist regulatory authorities in identifying areas where enforcement, monitoring, inspection and public awareness need to be strengthened. This is particularly important because recent evidence indicates that institutional and enforcement weaknesses remain relevant to building safety in Lagos State (Salau & Anifowose, 2026).

The study will also be relevant to occupants and members of the public. Increased awareness of early warning signs of building failure, appropriate maintenance practices and the dangers associated with unauthorized alterations may encourage residents to report defects and seek professional intervention before minor defects develop into serious structural problems.

Finally, the study will contribute to academic and professional knowledge in building technology, civil engineering, construction management, quantity surveying, architecture and related built-environment disciplines. It may provide a useful reference for future researchers investigating building failure, structural safety, construction quality, maintenance and preventive measures in Lagos State and other rapidly developing urban areas in Nigeria.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the assessment of causes of building failure and preventive measures in selected residential buildings in Lagos State.

The study will examine major factors associated with building failure, including:

• quality of construction materials;
• workmanship;
• structural and architectural design;
• foundation and soil conditions;
• construction methods;
• professional supervision;
• compliance with building regulations;
• maintenance practices;
• unauthorized alterations and change of building use; and
• environmental factors.

The study will also examine preventive measures such as regular inspection, professional supervision, material testing, adherence to approved building plans, proper maintenance, structural assessment, quality control and regulatory enforcement.

Geographically, the study is limited to selected residential buildings in Lagos State, Nigeria. The findings will therefore be interpreted within the context of the selected buildings and respondents and should not automatically be generalized to every residential building in Lagos State or Nigeria.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Building: A permanent or temporary structure designed and constructed to provide accommodation or space for residential, commercial, institutional or other human activities.

Building Failure: A condition in which a building or any of its components fails to perform its intended structural, functional or serviceability requirements satisfactorily.

Building Collapse: The partial or complete loss of structural integrity of a building resulting in the failure of one or more structural components.

Building Defect: A fault, imperfection or deterioration in a building component that affects its appearance, performance, durability, safety or serviceability.

Residential Building: A building designed primarily for human habitation, including houses, flats, apartments and other residential accommodation.

Preventive Measures: Actions taken before or during the life of a building to reduce the likelihood or severity of structural defects and building failure.

Maintenance: Planned or corrective activities undertaken to preserve, restore or improve the condition and performance of a building.

Workmanship: The quality and manner in which construction activities are carried out by workers and construction personnel.

Substandard Materials: Construction materials whose quality, strength, composition or performance does not meet the required specifications or approved standards.

Structural Design: The technical process of determining the size, arrangement, strength and capacity of structural elements to safely support anticipated loads.

Supervision: The professional monitoring and control of construction activities to ensure that work conforms to approved designs, specifications, standards and appropriate construction practices.

Regulatory Compliance: The extent to which construction activities and completed buildings conform to applicable planning regulations, building codes, standards and approval requirements.

Building Inspection: The systematic examination of a building or construction site to identify defects, unsafe conditions, non-compliance or potential causes of structural failure.

Foundation Failure: Failure of the foundation system to safely transfer building loads to the supporting soil, potentially resulting in settlement, differential movement, cracking or structural instability.

Project – Assessment of Causes of Building Failure and Preventive Measures in Selected Residential Buildings in Lagos State