Project – Cross-Border Intelligence Cooperation and the Governance of Transnational Organised Crime in West Africa: An Institutional Assessment of ECOWAS Security Cooperation.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Title: Cross-Border Intelligence Cooperation and the Governance of Transnational Organised Crime in West Africa: An Institutional Assessment of ECOWAS Security Cooperation

1.1 Background to the Study

Transnational organised crime has become one of the major security and governance challenges confronting states and regional organisations in the contemporary international system. It refers to organised criminal activities that involve the planning, execution, financing or consequences of offences across national borders. Such activities include drug trafficking, human trafficking, migrant smuggling, illicit arms trafficking, money laundering, cybercrime, maritime piracy, illegal exploitation of natural resources and other forms of organised criminal enterprise. Unlike conventional crimes that may be restricted to a particular locality or country, transnational organised crime operates through networks that exploit differences in national laws, weaknesses in border management, corruption, inadequate law-enforcement capacity and gaps in international cooperation. These criminal networks may recruit individuals in one country, obtain resources in another, move illegal commodities through several territories and transfer proceeds through financial systems located elsewhere. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC, 2013) explains that organised crime in West Africa is closely connected to weak governance, insecurity and development challenges, while also demonstrating how criminal markets can exploit institutional vulnerabilities. Similarly, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC, 2000) recognises that organised criminal activities require international cooperation because their operations frequently extend beyond the jurisdiction of a single state. This makes transnational organised crime not merely a law-enforcement problem but also an institutional and governance challenge requiring coordinated responses among states, security agencies and regional organisations.

West Africa occupies an important geographical and economic position connecting the Atlantic coast, the Sahel, North Africa and other parts of the African continent. The region’s extensive land borders, maritime routes, commercial corridors and informal trading networks facilitate legitimate movement of people and goods but can also be exploited by criminal organisations. Drug trafficking, human trafficking, migrant smuggling, illicit arms circulation, money laundering and other criminal activities have become important concerns for national governments and regional institutions. UNODC (2013) identified cocaine trafficking, counterfeit medicines, oil theft, human trafficking and other illicit activities as threats with significant consequences for governance and development in West Africa. The report explained that organised crime is both a consequence and a cause of weak governance because criminal groups benefit from institutional weaknesses while their activities further undermine public authority, economic stability and citizens’ confidence in government. More recent UNODC policy analysis also emphasises that criminal networks operating across West and Central Africa require stronger criminal justice systems, regional intelligence exchange, cross-border investigations and cooperation among specialised law-enforcement institutions (UNODC, 2023). The regional nature of these threats means that a country acting alone may be unable to investigate, prevent or prosecute criminal activities whose organisers, financiers, victims and operational networks are located in several jurisdictions. Therefore, effective governance of transnational organised crime requires cooperation that enables states to share relevant intelligence, coordinate investigations, harmonise legal responses and support one another in addressing criminal networks.

Cross-border intelligence cooperation is an important instrument for addressing the operational advantages enjoyed by transnational criminal organisations. It involves the collection, analysis, exchange and coordinated use of security-related information by relevant agencies across national boundaries. Such information may concern criminal suspects, trafficking routes, financial transactions, weapons movements, forged documents, organised networks, emerging threats and the activities of individuals or groups suspected of involvement in organised crime. Effective intelligence cooperation allows security institutions to identify criminal patterns, anticipate threats, trace suspects, coordinate operations and prevent offenders from exploiting jurisdictional gaps. The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) provides an international framework for cooperation in areas such as mutual legal assistance, extradition, law-enforcement cooperation and the exchange of information. At the regional level, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has developed security frameworks intended to promote collective responses to threats affecting member states. Its Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security (ECOWAS, 1999) established a framework for regional security cooperation, while the ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons, their Ammunition and Other Related Materials (2006) provides for cooperation among states in controlling the illicit circulation of weapons. These instruments demonstrate that regional security cooperation is not simply a political aspiration but an institutional responsibility requiring practical mechanisms, information exchange and coordinated action.

The Economic Community of West African States was established in 1975 to promote economic integration and cooperation among West African countries. Over time, the organisation’s responsibilities have expanded beyond economic integration to include peace, security, conflict prevention, democratic governance and regional stability. This expansion reflects the recognition that insecurity and organised criminal activities can weaken economic development, disrupt regional trade and undermine the conditions necessary for integration. ECOWAS has developed institutional mechanisms involving the Authority of Heads of State and Government, the Mediation and Security Council, the Commission and other specialised bodies to support regional peace and security. The 1999 Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security provides an important foundation for collective security arrangements, including cooperation in addressing threats to regional stability. The ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons (2006) further recognises the importance of cooperation among security forces and border-control services in preventing the illicit movement of weapons. These frameworks are relevant to the governance of transnational organised crime because criminal networks often operate in environments affected by weak border controls, armed violence, corruption and limited institutional coordination. However, the existence of regional protocols and institutions does not automatically guarantee effective implementation. The actual contribution of ECOWAS depends on the willingness of member states to cooperate, the capacity of national agencies to implement regional commitments and the ability of the organisation to coordinate collective security responses.

One significant institutional development in West African security cooperation is the West African Police Information System (WAPIS), which was developed by INTERPOL in cooperation with ECOWAS and supported by the European Union. WAPIS is designed to strengthen the collection, management and exchange of police information across the region. It supports national law-enforcement authorities through electronic systems for recording and managing information relating to criminal cases, suspects, victims, witnesses, vehicles, weapons and identity documents. At the regional level, it is intended to facilitate the exchange of relevant police information among participating countries, thereby improving the ability of law-enforcement agencies to identify suspects and investigate criminal activities that cross national borders (INTERPOL, 2023). ECOWAS and INTERPOL have presented WAPIS as an important instrument for improving security coordination and addressing transnational organised crime, terrorism and illicit trafficking in the region (ECOWAS, 2024). Nigeria’s formal receipt of the WAPIS platform and infrastructure in April 2025 also illustrates the continuing effort to strengthen national participation in regional police information cooperation (Federal Ministry of Police Affairs, 2025). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such a system depends on more than the availability of technology. It requires accurate data collection, compatible national systems, adequate training, secure information management, legal safeguards, institutional trust and the willingness of agencies to share information in a timely manner. WAPIS therefore provides an important example for assessing the institutional capacity of ECOWAS security cooperation.

Despite the development of regional security frameworks and intelligence-sharing mechanisms, significant institutional and operational challenges continue to affect cooperation against transnational organised crime in West Africa. These challenges may include limited trust among national security institutions, inadequate funding, differences in legal systems, weak border infrastructure, political disagreements, corruption, poor coordination and the reluctance of some agencies to share sensitive intelligence. National security institutions may also operate under different administrative procedures, technological capabilities and intelligence priorities, making it difficult to establish consistent regional practices. UNODC (2023) stresses that effective responses to organised crime require strong national criminal justice systems supported by regional and cross-border cooperation, including information-sharing arrangements, specialised investigative units and coordinated financial investigations. INTERPOL’s WAPIS programme similarly identifies the need to improve police information exchange and strengthen cooperation among law-enforcement agencies at national, regional and international levels (INTERPOL, 2023). In addition, the ECOWAS regional security framework requires member states to translate agreed protocols into practical national arrangements. Where political commitment is weak or institutional responsibilities are unclear, regional cooperation may remain limited to formal agreements and occasional meetings without producing sustained operational outcomes. The withdrawal of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger from ECOWAS, which became effective in January 2025, has also introduced new questions about the continuity of regional security cooperation and the management of cross-border threats involving states outside the organisation’s membership (ECOWAS, 2025). These developments make an institutional assessment of ECOWAS security cooperation particularly relevant.

The governance of transnational organised crime involves more than arresting suspects or intercepting illegal goods. It includes the ability of institutions to prevent criminal activities, enforce laws, coordinate investigations, regulate borders, protect victims, prosecute offenders, recover illicit assets and maintain public confidence in the rule of law. Effective governance therefore depends on institutional accountability, inter-agency coordination, legal cooperation, operational capacity and the consistent implementation of regional agreements. Cross-border intelligence cooperation can strengthen these governance processes by enabling states to identify criminal networks, exchange evidence, coordinate investigations and prevent offenders from exploiting national jurisdictional boundaries. However, the effectiveness of cooperation must be assessed in relation to the institutions responsible for implementing it, the mechanisms through which intelligence is exchanged and the practical results achieved. Egbeaduma, Idowu and Fasuan (2025) examined cross-border cooperation and intelligence sharing in combating transnational crimes in the ECOWAS region and identified institutional weaknesses, porous borders and limited intelligence-sharing arrangements as important obstacles to regional security. UNODC (2013, 2023) also emphasises the relationship between organised crime, governance weaknesses and the need for regional cooperation. Against this background, the present study seeks to undertake an institutional assessment of ECOWAS security cooperation by examining the mechanisms for cross-border intelligence exchange, the institutional capacity of regional and national security actors, the challenges affecting cooperation and the contribution of intelligence cooperation to the governance of transnational organised crime in West Africa.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Transnational organised crime has continued to pose serious threats to security, governance and socioeconomic development in West Africa despite the existence of regional security agreements and cooperation mechanisms. Criminal organisations exploit porous borders, weak law-enforcement structures, corruption, inadequate surveillance and differences in national legal systems to conduct activities across several countries. Drug trafficking, human trafficking, migrant smuggling, illicit arms trafficking, money laundering and cybercrime have become particularly challenging because their networks are not confined to the territory of one state. UNODC (2013) established that organised crime in West Africa is closely associated with weak governance and institutional vulnerabilities, while its subsequent regional policy analysis emphasised the importance of stronger criminal justice systems and cross-border cooperation (UNODC, 2023). Although individual governments have established national security agencies and adopted measures to combat organised crime, the cross-border nature of these activities means that national responses may be insufficient when intelligence, suspects, financial resources and criminal operations extend into neighbouring countries. The problem is therefore the continuing difficulty of achieving effective regional control over criminal networks that operate beyond the jurisdiction and operational capacity of individual states.

A second problem concerns the gap between the existence of ECOWAS security frameworks and their practical implementation by member states. ECOWAS has established important instruments, including the 1999 Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security and the 2006 Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons, which provide foundations for cooperation in addressing regional security threats. The West African Police Information System was also developed to improve the collection, management and exchange of police information across participating countries (INTERPOL, 2023). However, the existence of these frameworks does not necessarily mean that security institutions exchange intelligence promptly, coordinate investigations effectively or implement regional commitments consistently. Differences in institutional capacity, inadequate funding, incompatible information systems, weak administrative coordination and concerns about the confidentiality of intelligence may limit the practical benefits of cooperation. Egbeaduma et al. (2025) identify weaknesses in intelligence sharing and institutional coordination as significant challenges confronting efforts to combat transnational crime in the ECOWAS region. The problem requiring investigation is whether the regional mechanisms established by ECOWAS have translated into effective institutional cooperation or whether implementation difficulties continue to undermine their security objectives.

Another major concern is the institutional capacity of ECOWAS and national security agencies to transform shared intelligence into coordinated operational and governance outcomes. Intelligence cooperation is valuable only when information is accurate, timely, secure and capable of supporting appropriate decisions and actions. Where information is not properly analysed, communicated or acted upon, criminal organisations may continue to exploit gaps between national institutions. The WAPIS programme seeks to improve police information exchange and strengthen the ability of law-enforcement agencies to identify suspects, investigate criminal activities and cooperate across borders (INTERPOL, 2023). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the programme depends on the availability of trained personnel, functional information infrastructure, clear data-sharing procedures, institutional trust and sustained political commitment. UNODC (2023) similarly stresses that regional cooperation must be supported by effective national institutions, specialised law-enforcement units and coordinated criminal investigations. The withdrawal of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger from ECOWAS in January 2025 has further complicated the regional institutional environment by raising questions about the continuity of security collaboration, intelligence exchange and coordinated responses to threats involving states that are no longer members of the organisation. These developments create a need to examine whether existing ECOWAS cooperation arrangements possess the institutional flexibility and operational capacity required to address evolving transnational criminal threats.

The central problem, therefore, is the limited understanding of how effectively ECOWAS security cooperation translates cross-border intelligence sharing into improved governance of transnational organised crime in West Africa. While existing studies and policy documents have discussed regional security threats, intelligence exchange and institutional weaknesses, further assessment is required to establish the effectiveness of ECOWAS cooperation mechanisms, the capacity of participating institutions, the obstacles affecting intelligence sharing and the extent to which cooperation contributes to coordinated investigation, law enforcement and crime prevention. Egbeaduma et al. (2025) provide recent evidence on cross-border cooperation and intelligence sharing, while UNODC (2013, 2023) highlights the relationship between organised crime and governance challenges. However, there remains a need for an institutional assessment that brings these concerns together by examining the structures, processes and operational limitations of ECOWAS security cooperation. This study therefore investigates cross-border intelligence cooperation and the governance of transnational organised crime in West Africa, with particular attention to the institutional arrangements, implementation challenges and security outcomes associated with ECOWAS cooperation.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of this study is to assess cross-border intelligence cooperation and the governance of transnational organised crime in West Africa, with particular emphasis on the institutional effectiveness of ECOWAS security cooperation.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Examine the institutional frameworks and mechanisms established by ECOWAS for cross-border intelligence cooperation in combating transnational organised crime in West Africa.

2. Assess the effectiveness of intelligence-sharing and operational coordination among ECOWAS member states and their national security institutions.

3. Identify the institutional, political, legal and operational challenges affecting cross-border intelligence cooperation within the ECOWAS security framework.

4. Evaluate the contribution of ECOWAS cross-border intelligence cooperation to the governance and control of transnational organised crime in West Africa.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What institutional frameworks and mechanisms have been established by ECOWAS for cross-border intelligence cooperation in combating transnational organised crime in West Africa?

2. How effective are intelligence-sharing and operational coordination arrangements among ECOWAS member states and their national security institutions?

3. What institutional, political, legal and operational challenges affect cross-border intelligence cooperation within the ECOWAS security framework?

4. To what extent does ECOWAS cross-border intelligence cooperation contribute to the governance and control of transnational organised crime in West Africa?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis is formulated to guide the study and will be tested at a 0.05 level of significance:

H₀₁: There is no statistically significant relationship between the effectiveness of cross-border intelligence cooperation and the governance of transnational organised crime in West Africa.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study are expected to be useful to ECOWAS, national governments, security and intelligence agencies, policymakers, law-enforcement institutions, regional organisations, researchers and the wider West African community.

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): The study will provide an institutional assessment of the organisation’s security cooperation mechanisms, particularly the structures and processes supporting cross-border intelligence sharing. Its findings may assist ECOWAS in identifying weaknesses in the implementation of regional security agreements and developing strategies for strengthening intelligence coordination, institutional accountability and collective responses to organised crime.

National Governments in West Africa: The study will help governments understand the importance of regional intelligence cooperation in addressing criminal activities that extend beyond national borders. It may provide useful information for improving national security policies, strengthening cooperation with neighbouring states and ensuring that domestic security institutions effectively implement regional commitments.

Security and Intelligence Agencies: The findings will be relevant to police, immigration, customs, intelligence, military and other law-enforcement institutions involved in combating transnational organised crime. The study may highlight the importance of timely intelligence exchange, joint investigations, coordinated border management and the development of compatible information systems.

ECOWAS Policymakers and Security Administrators: The study will provide information that may assist policymakers in reviewing existing security protocols and institutional arrangements. It may also help identify areas where additional legal frameworks, administrative reforms, operational guidelines and capacity-building programmes are required.

INTERPOL and Regional Security Partners: The study may provide useful insights into the institutional conditions affecting the implementation and effectiveness of information-sharing initiatives such as WAPIS. It may also assist regional and international partners in identifying areas where technical assistance, personnel training and institutional support could improve security cooperation.

Border Management Institutions: The research will be useful to agencies responsible for managing land, maritime and air borders. Its findings may encourage stronger coordination between border-control institutions and other security agencies, particularly in the exchange of information concerning suspected trafficking networks, illicit movements and cross-border criminal activities.

Citizens and Communities in West Africa: The study will contribute to a better understanding of how institutional cooperation can improve regional security and public safety. Effective control of transnational organised crime may reduce the activities of criminal networks, strengthen confidence in public institutions and improve the security conditions necessary for economic and social development.

Researchers and Students: The study will contribute to academic literature on regional security, intelligence cooperation, transnational organised crime, institutional governance and African regional integration. It may also serve as a reference for future studies examining ECOWAS security institutions and regional responses to organised crime.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study will focus on cross-border intelligence cooperation and the governance of transnational organised crime in West Africa, with particular emphasis on the institutional arrangements and security cooperation mechanisms of ECOWAS.

Geographical scope: The study will cover the West African regional security environment, focusing on ECOWAS institutions and relevant national security agencies in selected West African countries. The specific countries and institutions will be determined by the researcher’s approved study design and access to respondents and documentary materials. The study will also recognise the institutional implications of the withdrawal of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger from ECOWAS in January 2025.

Content scope: The study will examine ECOWAS institutional frameworks for security cooperation, cross-border intelligence-sharing mechanisms, operational coordination, legal and policy arrangements, and the institutional challenges affecting regional security collaboration. It will also assess the contribution of intelligence cooperation to the governance of transnational organised crime.

Crime-related scope: The study will consider major forms of transnational organised crime affecting West Africa, including drug trafficking, human trafficking, migrant smuggling, illicit arms trafficking, money laundering, cybercrime and other organised criminal activities that operate across national borders.

Institutional scope: Attention will be given to ECOWAS security institutions and relevant national law-enforcement and intelligence agencies, including police, immigration, customs and other institutions involved in regional security cooperation. Specific attention will also be given to relevant information-sharing arrangements, including WAPIS.

1.8 Methodology

The study will adopt a mixed-methods institutional assessment design. This approach will enable the researcher to examine both measurable aspects of cross-border intelligence cooperation and the institutional experiences of individuals involved in regional security administration.

The population will comprise relevant officials and personnel in selected ECOWAS institutions and national security agencies in selected West African countries. These may include personnel from police, immigration, customs, intelligence and other law-enforcement institutions involved in cross-border security cooperation. Where direct access to regional security personnel is limited, the study will complement primary data with official policy documents, institutional reports, regional protocols and publications from relevant international organisations.

A sample will be selected using purposive and other appropriate sampling techniques. Purposive sampling will be useful for identifying respondents with relevant knowledge of regional intelligence cooperation, security administration and transnational crime control.

Primary data will be collected through structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The questionnaire will obtain information on the institutional mechanisms for intelligence sharing, the effectiveness of operational coordination, the challenges affecting cooperation and the perceived contribution of intelligence cooperation to crime governance. Interviews will provide more detailed explanations of institutional practices, policy implementation, inter-agency relationships and operational constraints.

Secondary data will be obtained from ECOWAS protocols, policy documents, INTERPOL publications, UNODC reports, relevant government publications, academic journals and other credible institutional sources. Particular attention will be given to the ECOWAS 1999 security protocol, the 2006 Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons, the WAPIS programme and relevant regional crime assessments.

Quantitative data will be analysed using descriptive statistics, including frequency counts, percentages, means and standard deviations. Appropriate inferential statistical techniques, such as Pearson Product Moment Correlation or regression analysis, may be used to test the hypothesis, depending on the measurement of the variables and the characteristics of the collected data. Qualitative interview data will be analysed thematically to identify recurring issues concerning institutional cooperation, intelligence exchange, implementation challenges and crime governance.

The study will observe relevant ethical principles, including informed consent, confidentiality, voluntary participation and responsible handling of sensitive institutional information. Respondents will not be required to disclose classified intelligence, operational details or information that could compromise national security.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Cross-Border Intelligence Cooperation: This refers to the exchange, analysis and coordinated use of security-related information among national security institutions across international boundaries to identify, prevent, investigate and respond to criminal activities.

Intelligence Sharing: This refers to the process through which security and law-enforcement agencies communicate relevant information about suspected criminals, criminal networks, trafficking routes, security threats and organised criminal activities to authorised institutions.

Transnational Organised Crime: This refers to organised criminal activities that are planned, committed, facilitated or have significant consequences across the borders of two or more countries. Examples include drug trafficking, human trafficking, migrant smuggling, illicit arms trafficking and money laundering.

Governance of Transnational Organised Crime: This refers to the institutional, legal, administrative and operational processes through which states and regional organisations prevent, regulate, investigate and respond to organised criminal activities that extend across national boundaries.

ECOWAS: This refers to the Economic Community of West African States, a regional organisation established to promote cooperation and integration among West African countries, including collaboration on peace, security and regional stability.

ECOWAS Security Cooperation: This refers to the policies, institutions, agreements and operational arrangements through which ECOWAS and participating West African states work together to prevent and address security threats affecting the region.

Institutional Assessment: This refers to the systematic examination of the structures, policies, capacities, procedures and operational performance of institutions in carrying out their assigned responsibilities.

West African Police Information System (WAPIS): This refers to an INTERPOL-supported police information system developed in cooperation with ECOWAS and other partners to strengthen the collection, management and exchange of police information among participating West African countries.

Operational Coordination: This refers to the practical collaboration among security and law-enforcement institutions in planning and implementing investigations, intelligence operations, border-control activities and other responses to cross-border criminal threats.

Regional Security: This refers to the collective security conditions and institutional arrangements through which countries in West Africa seek to protect their territories, institutions and populations from threats that affect more than one country.

Project – Cross-Border Intelligence Cooperation and the Governance of Transnational Organised Crime in West Africa: An Institutional Assessment of ECOWAS Security Cooperation.