Project – Environmental Sanitation Practices and the Risk of Vector-Borne Diseases: A Study of Selected Communities in Makurdi Local Government Area, Benue State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Environmental sanitation is an important component of public health and refers broadly to activities aimed at maintaining clean and healthy surroundings through appropriate management of human waste, solid waste, wastewater, drainage systems, water storage and other environmental conditions. Poor sanitation can create conditions that favour the survival and multiplication of disease vectors such as mosquitoes, flies, ticks and other organisms capable of transmitting pathogens. Vector-borne diseases remain a major public health concern globally, accounting for more than 17% of infectious diseases and more than 700,000 deaths annually. The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies environmental and social conditions, urbanization, climate, water and sanitation as important determinants of vector-borne disease transmission and emphasizes that many vector-borne diseases can be prevented through vector control, environmental management and community mobilization (World Health Organization [WHO], 2024).

In tropical and subtropical countries such as Nigeria, environmental conditions play an important role in the transmission of vector-borne diseases, particularly malaria and other mosquito-borne infections. Malaria remains one of the most important infectious diseases affecting Nigeria, with the country carrying a substantial proportion of the malaria burden in the African region. The WHO reported that Nigeria accounted for approximately 31.9% of malaria deaths in the WHO African Region in 2024. Although interventions such as insecticide-treated nets, indoor residual spraying and antimalarial medicines remain central to malaria control, environmental management is also important because mosquitoes require suitable habitats for breeding and survival. Poorly maintained drainage systems, stagnant water and water-holding containers can create breeding opportunities that undermine disease-control efforts (WHO, 2025; WHO, 2024).

Environmental sanitation practices can influence the availability of mosquito breeding sites within households and communities. Practices such as proper disposal of refuse, regular clearing of gutters and drains, removal of stagnant water, proper management of discarded tyres and containers, clearing of overgrown vegetation and appropriate wastewater disposal can reduce environmental conditions favourable to vectors. A systematic review of environmental management for malaria control found that environmental modification and manipulation can substantially reduce malaria risk, particularly through measures involving water management, drainage and modification of vector habitats (Keiser et al., 2005). Similarly, WHO and UNICEF (2024) emphasize that water, sanitation and waste-management interventions can be used to prevent and control mosquito-borne diseases, particularly by reducing opportunities for mosquitoes to breed. Thus, environmental sanitation is not merely an aesthetic concern but constitutes part of an integrated approach to disease prevention.

The importance of sanitation becomes more evident in urban and rapidly expanding communities where human activities can generate numerous artificial mosquito breeding habitats. A systematic review of urban malaria transmission identified artificial breeding environments including drains, gutters, ditches, tyre tracks, domestic containers, water tanks, construction sites, abandoned structures and other water-holding locations. The study noted that human activities can create or modify habitats that support mosquito breeding, thereby contributing to the persistence of vector populations in urban settings (Keiser et al., 2005; Hay et al., 2012). In addition, WHO (2024) notes that the proximity of mosquito breeding sites to human habitation can increase the risk of mosquito-borne disease transmission. Consequently, the sanitation practices adopted by households and communities can influence whether potentially productive breeding sites are created, maintained or eliminated.

The Nigerian situation demonstrates that the availability of vector-control interventions does not always guarantee their effective utilization or adequate control of disease transmission. Ugwu et al. (2024), in a systematic review of malaria-control strategies in Nigeria, found insufficient uptake of several preventive measures and identified factors such as poverty, ignorance, cultural beliefs, cost and weaknesses within the healthcare system as contributors to poor utilization. Although their review focused largely on malaria prevention strategies rather than environmental sanitation alone, the findings demonstrate the importance of behaviour and community practices in disease control. Environmental sanitation similarly requires sustained participation by households, community members and local authorities. Where individuals continue to dispose of waste indiscriminately, allow water to accumulate around homes or fail to maintain drainage channels, environmental conditions may remain favourable for vectors despite the availability of other preventive interventions (Ugwu et al., 2024).

The situation is particularly relevant to Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State because studies conducted within Makurdi have documented environmental conditions capable of supporting mosquito breeding. Research on mosquito larval habitats in urban Makurdi identified 11 types of breeding habitats, including discarded tyres, rock pools, domestic containers, cesspools, abandoned wells, potholes, gutters and electric poles. Discarded tyres were among the most active habitats, while blocked drainages were also identified as particularly suitable environments for mosquito larvae. The researchers linked some of these habitats to human activities and indiscriminate disposal of materials, indicating that environmental conditions within the city can contribute to the proliferation of mosquito vectors (Obisike et al., 2020).

Earlier research in Makurdi also documented the relationship between poor environmental conditions and mosquito breeding. Studies of mosquito species in the Makurdi area reported that poor drainage systems, stagnant water and foul-smelling water were common environmental features that provided suitable breeding conditions for different mosquito species. The presence of blocked drainage systems and refuse disposal in drainage channels was identified as an environmental concern because stagnant water can provide habitats for mosquitoes. Research along the River Benue in Makurdi similarly documented the presence of mosquito larvae in breeding sites associated with water bodies and human activities and noted that the river and its surrounding environment could have implications for mosquito distribution and disease transmission (Amuta et al., 2014; Solomon et al., 2015). These local findings provide an important justification for examining sanitation practices at the community level rather than considering vector-borne disease solely from a clinical perspective.

Environmental sanitation is therefore an important component of sustainable vector-borne disease prevention in Makurdi. The persistence of mosquito breeding habitats in discarded tyres, blocked drains, stagnant pools, domestic containers and other anthropogenic environments suggests that individual and community sanitation behaviours can influence exposure to disease vectors. WHO (2024) recommends integrated approaches to vector control that combine environmental management, community mobilization and other vector-control interventions. Given the documented presence of diverse mosquito breeding habitats in Makurdi, there is a need to examine how residents manage their immediate environments and whether existing sanitation practices may be associated with conditions that increase the risk of vector-borne diseases. The present study therefore focuses on environmental sanitation practices and the risk of vector-borne diseases in selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State, with particular attention to waste disposal, drainage maintenance, stagnant-water management, vegetation control and other practices that can influence vector breeding.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Vector-borne diseases continue to constitute an important public health problem in Nigeria, with malaria representing one of the most significant mosquito-borne diseases affecting the population. Although malaria prevention and vector-control interventions have been implemented nationally, transmission remains persistent. The continued burden of malaria indicates that disease prevention requires more than clinical treatment and personal protection alone. Environmental factors that facilitate vector breeding can continue to sustain transmission when sanitation systems are inadequate. WHO identifies environmental management, water and sanitation improvements, community mobilization and vector control as important components of strategies for reducing vector-borne disease transmission (WHO, 2024).

A major concern is the persistence of environmental conditions that provide suitable breeding habitats for mosquitoes. In many communities, indiscriminate disposal of refuse, blocked gutters, stagnant water, discarded containers and tyres, poorly maintained drainage channels and overgrown vegetation can create favourable conditions for mosquito proliferation. Evidence from Makurdi is particularly concerning because studies have documented mosquito breeding in discarded tyres, rock pools, domestic containers, gutters, abandoned wells and other artificial and natural habitats. Obisike et al. (2020) found that discarded tyres and blocked drainage systems were among the important mosquito larval habitats investigated in urban Makurdi. Such evidence suggests that environmental sanitation conditions may provide opportunities for continued vector proliferation within residential communities.

Another concern is the extent to which residents actually adopt appropriate environmental sanitation practices. The availability of knowledge about malaria or other vector-borne diseases does not necessarily mean that households consistently engage in behaviours that reduce vector breeding. Research in Nigeria has documented inadequate uptake of some malaria-prevention strategies, with poverty, ignorance, cultural beliefs, cost and health-system limitations identified as contributing factors (Ugwu et al., 2024). In Makurdi, research on mosquito breeding environments has also demonstrated the role of human-created habitats, including discarded tyres, containers and blocked drainage channels. This raises questions about whether residents in selected communities maintain their surroundings adequately, dispose of waste appropriately, eliminate stagnant water and keep drainage systems free of obstructions.

The specific problem that necessitates this study is the limited community-level evidence on the relationship between environmental sanitation practices and the risk of vector-borne diseases among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area. Existing Makurdi studies have provided important entomological evidence regarding mosquito species and breeding habitats, but they have not adequately addressed the everyday sanitation practices of community residents and how these practices may contribute to environmental conditions associated with vector breeding. Therefore, there is a need to determine the environmental sanitation practices adopted by residents, assess the perceived or observed risk of vector-borne diseases, examine the relationship between sanitation practices and vector-borne disease risk, and identify factors that hinder effective environmental sanitation. Evidence generated from this study may assist public health practitioners, local authorities and community organizations in designing more targeted environmental-health and vector-control interventions in Makurdi.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine environmental sanitation practices and the risk of vector-borne diseases in selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. assess the level of environmental sanitation practices among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area;
2. determine the level of risk of vector-borne diseases among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area;
3. examine the relationship between environmental sanitation practices and the risk of vector-borne diseases among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area; and
4. identify the major factors affecting effective environmental sanitation practices for the prevention of vector-borne diseases in the selected communities.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What is the level of environmental sanitation practices among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area?
2. What is the level of risk of vector-borne diseases among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area?
3. What relationship exists between environmental sanitation practices and the risk of vector-borne diseases among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area?
4. What are the major factors affecting effective environmental sanitation practices for the prevention of vector-borne diseases in the selected communities?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between environmental sanitation practices and the risk of vector-borne diseases among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study are expected to be useful to the following groups:

Residents and Households: The study may increase residents’ understanding of the relationship between environmental cleanliness and vector-borne disease prevention. It may encourage households to adopt appropriate waste disposal, drainage maintenance, stagnant-water removal and other sanitation practices.

Community Leaders: Traditional leaders, ward leaders, landlords’ associations and community development organizations may use the findings to strengthen community sanitation activities and encourage collective responsibility for environmental cleanliness.

Public Health Workers: Environmental health officers, community health workers and other public health professionals may use the findings to identify common sanitation deficiencies and develop targeted health education and vector-control programmes.

Makurdi Local Government Authority: The study may provide useful evidence for planning environmental sanitation programmes, waste-management initiatives, drainage maintenance and community-based vector-control activities.

Benue State Ministry of Health: The findings may support the development and implementation of integrated vector-control and environmental-health interventions within communities where environmental conditions may facilitate vector breeding.

Environmental Health Officers: The study may assist environmental health personnel in identifying environmental practices that require greater monitoring, enforcement or community education.

Researchers and Students: The study may provide empirical information for future research on environmental sanitation, mosquito ecology, malaria, vector-borne diseases, community health and environmental-health practices in Benue State and other parts of Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study is delimited to environmental sanitation practices and the risk of vector-borne diseases among residents of selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State.

The content scope covers environmental sanitation practices such as solid-waste disposal, drainage maintenance, stagnant-water management, disposal of discarded containers and tyres, vegetation clearing, wastewater management and general cleanliness of residential surroundings. The study will also consider vector-borne disease risks, particularly those associated with mosquitoes, including malaria and other mosquito-borne infections.

The geographical scope is restricted to selected communities within Makurdi Local Government Area. The respondents will comprise adult residents of the selected communities who have lived within the study area for a specified minimum period. The study will focus on community environmental practices rather than laboratory confirmation of individual vector-borne disease infections.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Environmental Sanitation: The practices and measures undertaken to maintain a clean, safe and healthy physical environment through proper management of waste, drainage, wastewater, water storage, vegetation and other environmental conditions.

Environmental Sanitation Practices: Specific activities undertaken by individuals or communities to maintain environmental cleanliness and reduce conditions favourable to disease vectors, including proper waste disposal, clearing of drains, removal of stagnant water and appropriate disposal of water-holding containers.

Vector: A living organism, commonly an insect or arthropod, capable of transmitting an infectious pathogen between humans or from animals to humans.

Vector-Borne Disease: A disease caused by pathogens and transmitted to humans or animals through vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, flies or other organisms.

Risk of Vector-Borne Diseases: The likelihood that individuals or communities may be exposed to or affected by diseases transmitted by vectors as a result of environmental, behavioural and other contributing conditions.

Mosquito Breeding Site: A natural or artificial location containing conditions suitable for the development of mosquito eggs, larvae or pupae, such as stagnant water, blocked drains, discarded tyres, containers, puddles or abandoned wells.

Solid Waste: Unwanted discarded materials generated from households, commercial activities, institutions and other human activities.

Stagnant Water: Water that remains relatively stationary for a period sufficient to provide a potential habitat for mosquito breeding.

Community: A group of people residing within a defined geographical area and sharing common environmental, social or administrative characteristics.

Residents: Adults who live within the selected communities in Makurdi Local Government Area and who constitute the study population.

1.9 Organisation of the Study

The study will be organized into five chapters.

Chapter One presents the introduction, background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, research hypothesis, significance of the study, scope of the study, operational definition of terms and organisation of the study.

Chapter Two will review related literature on environmental sanitation, vector-borne diseases, environmental factors associated with vector breeding, sanitation practices, mosquito breeding habitats, vector-control measures, relevant theories and previous empirical studies.

Chapter Three will present the research methodology. It will cover the research design, area of the study, population of the study, sample size and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validity of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and method of data analysis.

Chapter Four will present the analysis and interpretation of data collected from respondents. The research questions will be answered using appropriate descriptive statistics, while the hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance.

Chapter Five will present the discussion of findings, conclusion, recommendations, limitations of the study, implications of the findings and suggestions for further studies.

Project – Environmental Sanitation Practices and the Risk of Vector-Borne Diseases: A Study of Selected Communities in Makurdi Local Government Area, Benue State