Project – Farmer-to-Farmer Extension and Adoption of Climate-Smart Farming Practices: A Study of Smallholder Farmers in Benue State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Agriculture remains a major source of food, employment, income and rural livelihoods in Nigeria, with smallholder farmers accounting for a substantial proportion of agricultural production. However, the productivity and sustainability of smallholder farming are increasingly threatened by climate variability, including irregular rainfall, rising temperatures, flooding, drought and changing growing seasons. These challenges are particularly important in rain-fed agricultural systems where farmers depend heavily on natural climatic conditions. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) has therefore emerged as an important approach for improving agricultural productivity while strengthening farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change and, where possible, reducing greenhouse-gas emissions. In Nigeria, the promotion of CSA has been linked to the need for greater awareness, improved extension services and stronger institutional support for farmers (Ifeanyi-Obi et al., 2022).

Climate-smart farming encompasses a range of practices designed to improve farmers’ resilience and productivity under changing climatic conditions. Such practices may include the use of improved and climate-resilient crop varieties, intercropping, crop rotation, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, zero or reduced tillage, soil and water conservation, appropriate planting dates, organic manure and improved soil-management practices. In the Benue region, Shomkegh (2019) identified practices such as traditional parklands, intercropping, improved crop varieties, citrus orchards and zero tillage as having potential for addressing rainfall variability and improving the resilience of farming systems. The relevance of these practices is particularly significant for smallholder farmers because several of them can be adapted to local production conditions and can contribute to soil conservation, moisture retention, diversification and improved farm returns (Shomkegh, 2019).

The effectiveness of climate-smart practices, however, depends not only on their technical suitability but also on farmers’ access to knowledge about how, when and why the practices should be applied. Agricultural extension traditionally provides this knowledge by linking research institutions, government agencies and farming communities. Increasingly, participatory and decentralized extension approaches recognize farmers themselves as important sources of agricultural knowledge. Farmer-to-farmer extension involves trained or experienced farmers sharing agricultural information, skills and practical experiences with other farmers within their communities. Hörner et al. (2022), using evidence from a randomized extension experiment, found that farmer-to-farmer extension could increase farmers’ knowledge and adoption of agricultural technologies and could generate information spillovers beyond farmers who directly participated in extension activities. This suggests that farmer-to-farmer learning can complement conventional extension systems where professional extension personnel are insufficient to reach all farmers.

The farmer-to-farmer approach is particularly relevant because agricultural innovations are often better understood when farmers can observe their application under conditions similar to their own farms. Demonstration plots, farmer groups, field days, model farmers and informal discussions can create opportunities for farmers to compare new practices with traditional methods and assess their usefulness before adopting them. The approach also encourages a shift from a purely top-down extension model towards participatory learning in which farmers contribute their own experiences and indigenous knowledge. FAO’s Farmer Field School approach similarly emphasizes practical, group-based learning, experimentation and farmer participation in developing solutions to production problems and adapting agricultural practices to local conditions (FAO, n.d.). Evidence from Hörner et al. (2022) further indicates that information can move from trained farmers to other farmers through peer networks, although the extent of diffusion may depend on social relationships, the characteristics of the innovation and the quality of information transmitted.

The need to strengthen farmer-to-farmer extension is particularly relevant in Benue State, which is widely recognized for its importance in Nigeria’s agricultural production. Farmers in the state cultivate crops such as yam, cassava, maize, rice, soybean and other food crops, making the performance of its smallholder agricultural sector important for household livelihoods and food supply. However, climate variability presents serious challenges to agricultural production in the state. Shomkegh (2019) documented changing rainfall patterns in the Benue region, including shorter wet seasons and changes in the onset and cessation of rainfall, while identifying improved varieties, intercropping and zero tillage among practices that can help farmers respond to these changes. Thus, effective dissemination of knowledge concerning climate-smart practices is an important component of strengthening agricultural resilience among smallholder farmers in Benue State.

Empirical evidence from Benue State also demonstrates the importance of agricultural information and extension exposure in farmers’ adoption of innovations. Fidelugwuowo and Omekwu (2025) examined the adoption and continued use of agricultural technology innovations among smallholder crop farmers in Benue State and found that education, farm size, access to credit, access to extension services and the cost of innovations were among the factors associated with adoption. The study further reported relatively high adoption of improved crop varieties and several crop-protection technologies but identified poor support for agricultural technology innovation as a concern. These findings suggest that merely introducing agricultural innovations is insufficient; farmers need continuous access to relevant information and support that can help them understand, experiment with and sustain appropriate practices. Farmer-to-farmer extension may provide an additional pathway through which such knowledge can reach farmers who have limited or irregular contact with conventional extension personnel (Fidelugwuowo & Omekwu, 2025).

Despite the potential of farmer-to-farmer extension, there remains a need to establish the extent to which the approach contributes specifically to the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers in Benue State. Nigerian evidence shows that extension programmes have faced challenges such as insufficient personnel, inadequate funding, limited farmer awareness and weak institutional support for climate-smart agriculture (Ifeanyi-Obi et al., 2022). Similarly, recent evidence from North-Central Nigeria indicates that constraints affecting extension agents can limit the effective dissemination of climate-smart practices to farmers (Ojo et al., 2024). While farmer-to-farmer communication can potentially reduce information gaps and improve peer learning, its effectiveness may vary according to farmers’ participation, trust in peer information, frequency of interaction, perceived credibility of farmer trainers and the complexity of the practices being promoted. Consequently, examining farmer-to-farmer extension and its relationship with adoption among smallholder farmers in Benue State is necessary for understanding whether peer-based extension can contribute meaningfully to climate adaptation and sustainable agricultural production in the state.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Climate change poses an increasing threat to smallholder agricultural production in Nigeria because many farmers depend on rain-fed agriculture and have limited capacity to absorb climate-related shocks. Changes in rainfall patterns, temperature, flooding and other weather-related events can affect planting decisions, crop growth, soil conditions and farm productivity. Although climate-smart agriculture provides a pathway for improving resilience, the adoption of climate-smart practices among smallholder farmers remains inadequate. Ifeanyi-Obi et al. (2022) identified inadequate farmer awareness, neglect of extension programmes, insufficient extension personnel, inadequate funding and farmers’ resistance to change among the factors limiting the uptake of climate-smart agricultural technologies, innovations and management practices in Nigeria.

A major problem is the continuing difficulty of providing regular and effective extension services to large numbers of smallholder farmers. Conventional extension systems depend substantially on professional extension personnel, yet limitations in personnel, resources, mobility and institutional support can restrict the frequency and quality of farmer contact. Evidence from North-Central Nigeria shows that extension agents encounter constraints in disseminating climate-smart agricultural practices, thereby potentially limiting farmers’ access to information required for climate adaptation (Ojo et al., 2024). In Benue State, Fidelugwuowo and Omekwu (2025) similarly identified access to extension services as one of the factors associated with farmers’ adoption and continued use of agricultural innovations. Where farmers do not receive timely and practical information from formal extension channels, they may depend increasingly on fellow farmers, relatives, neighbours and other informal sources of agricultural information.

Although farmer-to-farmer extension offers an opportunity to overcome some limitations of conventional extension delivery, its effectiveness cannot be assumed. Farmer-to-farmer dissemination may facilitate rapid communication because farmers share similar production environments and can explain technologies using familiar experiences and local language. However, information transmitted through informal networks may be incomplete, inaccurate or inconsistently applied, particularly where the recommended practice is technically complex. Hörner et al. (2022) found that farmer-to-farmer extension increased knowledge and adoption and generated information spillovers, but the study also recognized that information transmission through peer networks can be incomplete. This raises an important question for Benue State: whether farmer-to-farmer extension is sufficiently effective to promote the adoption of climate-smart practices such as improved varieties, intercropping, crop rotation, conservation agriculture, soil and water management and related adaptation measures.

The problem is therefore not simply the availability of climate-smart technologies, but the effectiveness of the mechanisms through which smallholder farmers acquire knowledge, evaluate innovations and decide whether to adopt them. Existing evidence has established the importance of extension exposure, education, credit and other socioeconomic factors in agricultural technology adoption in Benue State, while broader Nigerian studies have highlighted weak extension systems and inadequate awareness as barriers to climate-smart agriculture. However, there is comparatively limited location-specific empirical evidence focusing directly on farmer-to-farmer extension as a mechanism for promoting the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers in Benue State. This gap makes it necessary to investigate the extent of farmer-to-farmer extension, the climate-smart practices being adopted, the factors influencing peer-based extension and whether farmer-to-farmer extension significantly influences adoption among smallholder farmers in the state.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between farmer-to-farmer extension and the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers in Benue State.

The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the extent to which smallholder farmers in Benue State participate in farmer-to-farmer extension activities;
2. identify the major climate-smart farming practices adopted by smallholder farmers in Benue State;
3. determine the major sources and forms of farmer-to-farmer agricultural information available to smallholder farmers;
4. examine the factors influencing farmers’ participation in farmer-to-farmer extension

1.4 Research Questions

The study will answer the following questions:

1. To what extent do smallholder farmers in Benue State participate in farmer-to-farmer extension activities?
2. What climate-smart farming practices are adopted by smallholder farmers in Benue State?
3. What are the major sources and forms of agricultural information exchanged through farmer-to-farmer extension?
4. What factors influence smallholder farmers’ participation in farmer-to-farmer extension?

1.5 Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: Farmer-to-farmer extension has no significant influence on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers in Benue State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to smallholder farmers because it will provide evidence on how farmers can use peer networks to obtain practical information about climate-smart farming practices. Understanding the usefulness of farmer-to-farmer learning may encourage farmers to participate more actively in farmer groups, demonstrations, field days and other knowledge-sharing activities.

The study will also be useful to agricultural extension personnel. The findings may help extension officers understand how farmer-to-farmer networks can complement conventional extension services. Rather than relying exclusively on direct contact between professional extension workers and individual farmers, extension programmes may use trained lead farmers and farmer groups to expand the reach of agricultural information.

For Benue State agricultural authorities and policymakers, the findings may provide empirical information for strengthening extension policies and climate adaptation programmes. Evidence on the effectiveness of peer-based extension can assist policymakers in designing extension interventions that are participatory, locally appropriate and capable of reaching larger numbers of smallholder farmers.

The study will be relevant to agricultural development organizations, NGOs and development partners working in climate adaptation and rural development. It may provide evidence for designing farmer-based training, demonstration and community learning programmes aimed at improving the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices.

The study will also contribute to agricultural extension and climate-smart agriculture literature by providing location-specific evidence from Benue State. While previous studies have examined agricultural technology adoption and climate-smart agriculture in Nigeria, this study focuses specifically on the farmer-to-farmer extension pathway and its relationship with climate-smart practice adoption.

Finally, the study will be useful to future researchers and students as a reference for further studies on agricultural extension, peer learning, climate adaptation, technology adoption and smallholder agricultural development in Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on farmer-to-farmer extension and the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers in Benue State, Nigeria.

Conceptually, the study covers farmer-to-farmer extension, sources of peer agricultural information, farmer participation in peer-learning activities, model or lead farmers, information sharing, climate-smart agricultural practices and farmers’ adoption behaviour.

The study will examine climate-smart practices such as improved and climate-resilient varieties, intercropping, crop rotation, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, zero or reduced tillage, soil and water conservation, appropriate planting dates and related sustainable farming practices.

Geographically, the study is limited to selected smallholder farming communities in Benue State. The study will focus on farmers who are actively engaged in crop production and who have opportunities to obtain agricultural information through other farmers or farmer groups.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Adoption: The decision and actual process through which a farmer begins to use and continues to apply a recommended agricultural practice or technology.

Climate Change: Long-term changes in temperature, rainfall patterns and other climatic conditions that affect agricultural production and farmers’ livelihoods.

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA): An approach to agricultural production that seeks to increase productivity, strengthen resilience and adaptation to climate change and, where feasible, reduce greenhouse-gas emissions.

Climate-Smart Farming Practices: Agricultural practices that help farmers improve productivity and manage the risks associated with climate variability and change. Examples include intercropping, crop rotation, agroforestry, improved varieties, conservation agriculture and soil and water conservation.

Extension: The process of providing farmers with agricultural information, knowledge, skills and advisory support to improve their farming practices and livelihoods.

Farmer-to-Farmer Extension: A participatory agricultural extension approach in which farmers share agricultural knowledge, skills, experiences and information with other farmers, either formally or informally.

Lead Farmer: A farmer selected or recognized because of experience, knowledge, leadership ability or willingness to learn and share agricultural information with other farmers.

Smallholder Farmer: A farmer operating a relatively small-scale farm and relying substantially on family labour and limited farm resources for agricultural production.

Peer Learning: The process through which farmers acquire knowledge and skills from other farmers through observation, interaction, discussion, demonstration and shared experience.

Farmer Adoption Level: The extent to which farmers have accepted and are actively applying recommended climate-smart farming practices on their farms.

Project – Farmer-to-Farmer Extension and Adoption of Climate-Smart Farming Practices: A Study of Smallholder Farmers in Benue State