Project – Nigeria’s Cultural Diplomacy and Its Contribution to International Relations: A Study of Selected Cultural Exchange Programmes

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

International relations have traditionally been associated with diplomacy, political negotiations, economic relations, military power and interstate agreements. However, the increasing interconnectedness of societies has expanded the range of instruments through which states pursue their interests and build relationships with other countries. Culture has become an important component of this broader diplomatic environment because cultural practices, values, artistic expressions, education, language, heritage, literature, music, film and other forms of creative expression can facilitate communication between peoples and governments. Cultural diplomacy generally involves the use or exchange of cultural resources and activities to promote mutual understanding, dialogue and relationships between countries. Cummings (2003) describes cultural diplomacy in terms of the exchange of ideas, information, art and other aspects of culture among nations and peoples, while UNESCO (2022) similarly identifies cultural exchanges, artistic activities, exhibitions and educational programmes as instruments through which intercultural understanding and international cooperation can be promoted. The growing relevance of culture to international relations is also connected with the concept of soft power, through which states may generate attraction and influence through culture, values and policies rather than relying exclusively on coercion or material inducements (Nye, 2004).

Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy is closely related to the country’s broader foreign-policy orientation and its effort to project its identity and interests beyond its territorial boundaries. As a culturally diverse African state with numerous ethnic groups, languages, artistic traditions, festivals, religious practices, literary traditions and creative industries, Nigeria possesses substantial cultural resources that can be deployed in external relations. Historically, Nigeria’s foreign policy has placed considerable emphasis on Africa, African unity and the country’s role within the international community. Culture has therefore provided an avenue through which Nigeria can communicate aspects of its national identity while building relationships with other countries and peoples. Olawoyin (2020), in examining cultural diplomacy and the foreign policies of Britain, France and Germany in Nigeria, demonstrates that cultural institutions and cultural exchanges have long been connected to foreign-policy objectives. Similarly, Eiguedo-Okoeguale (2022), in examining Indo-Nigerian socio-cultural relations, argues that cultural, artistic, educational and social contacts have contributed to the development and reinforcement of diplomatic relations between Nigeria and India. These observations demonstrate that culture is not merely an internal expression of national identity but can also function as an instrument through which Nigeria develops and maintains international relationships.

One significant historical example of Nigeria’s use of culture in international relations was the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC ’77) held in Lagos in 1977. FESTAC brought together artists, performers, intellectuals and cultural representatives from Africa and the African diaspora and presented Nigeria as a major centre of African cultural activity. The festival involved music, dance, theatre, visual arts, literature, traditional performances and other forms of cultural expression and was conceived within a broader Pan-African framework. Apter (2021) explains that FESTAC ’77 celebrated African cultural achievements and legacies across the continent and diaspora and included participants from a wide geographical area extending beyond Africa. Ojukwu and Enuka (2020) specifically examine FESTAC ’77 as an instrument of Nigeria’s Afrocentric foreign policy, arguing that the festival demonstrated the place of culture within Nigeria’s international engagement while also identifying difficulties associated with its implementation and financial cost. FESTAC ’77 therefore provides an important historical example of how Nigeria attempted to employ cultural resources to strengthen its international identity, promote African cultural solidarity and enhance its diplomatic visibility.

Beyond large-scale international festivals, cultural diplomacy can also be implemented through bilateral cultural agreements, cultural centres, educational exchanges, artistic exchanges, language programmes, exhibitions and collaborative cultural projects. Nigeria has developed formal institutional arrangements for international cultural relations through the Federal Ministry responsible for culture. The International Cultural Relations Department of the Federal Ministry of Information and Culture states that its mandate includes managing Nigeria’s cultural relations with other countries, negotiating and implementing bilateral cultural agreements and memoranda of understanding, and coordinating cultural cooperation intended to promote international understanding, mutual cooperation and friendship. The department reports that Nigeria has maintained cultural cooperation arrangements with more than seventy friendly countries. This institutional structure demonstrates that cultural diplomacy is not limited to occasional cultural performances but forms part of a wider system of government-to-government and people-to-people engagement. Through such programmes, Nigeria can exchange artists, performers, researchers, students, cultural professionals and ideas with foreign partners, thereby creating opportunities for sustained interpersonal and institutional relationships.

Nigeria’s cultural relationship with China provides a concrete illustration of how cultural exchange can become connected with broader bilateral relations. According to China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nigeria and China have signed cultural cooperation agreements and university cooperation protocols, while both countries established cultural centres following the 2012 Agreement on the Reciprocal Establishment of Cultural Centers. The Chinese government also reports that scholarship arrangements for Nigerian students have operated since 1964, creating an educational dimension to the relationship. More recently, the two countries have continued to identify cultural activities such as the China-Nigeria Culture Week, China-Nigeria Film Festival, Abuja International Art Fair, exchanges between artistic groups and personnel, and cooperation in publishing, film, television, cultural heritage, libraries and museums as areas of bilateral engagement. The 2024 Nigeria-China joint statement similarly emphasised cultural, educational, media, tourism, youth and sports exchanges as mechanisms for strengthening mutual understanding, trust and friendship. These activities illustrate how cultural exchange can create channels of communication that extend beyond conventional diplomatic negotiations and contribute to broader bilateral relations.

Nigeria’s relationship with India also demonstrates the role of cultural interaction in strengthening international relations. Eiguedo-Okoeguale (2022) examined Indo-Nigerian socio-cultural relations from the 1960s to the contemporary period and found that increasing social contacts contributed to cultural diplomacy between the two countries. According to the study, shared historical experiences and interactions involving cultural, artistic, legal, educational and media institutions helped reinforce the relationship. This is important because cultural exchange does not necessarily operate through government officials alone; students, academics, artists, performers, media professionals and other members of society can become participants in international engagement. Such people-to-people connections can create familiarity and reduce cultural distance, while repeated interactions may provide a social foundation for cooperation in other areas. Consequently, selected cultural exchange programmes involving Nigeria can be examined not only in terms of cultural presentation but also in terms of their contribution to communication, mutual understanding, friendship and broader diplomatic relations.

The relevance of cultural diplomacy has become even more pronounced in contemporary international relations because globalization, digital communication and the expansion of creative industries have increased the ability of cultural products to reach international audiences. Nigerian music, film, literature, fashion, cuisine, festivals and other creative expressions increasingly circulate across national borders, creating opportunities for Nigeria to project aspects of its identity to international audiences. Recent scholarship on Nigerian cultural institutions identifies museums, arts councils, performance groups and heritage organisations as important actors in projecting Nigerian culture internationally through exhibitions, cultural exchanges, diaspora engagement and other initiatives. Okeugo, Obioha and Orabueze (2024) argue that these activities can contribute to international understanding, global partnerships and Nigeria’s soft-power resources, while also identifying challenges such as inadequate funding, policy fragmentation, infrastructure limitations, weak digital capacity and limited international visibility. The Nigerian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has likewise incorporated cultural and artistic engagement into its diplomatic activities, including the Atrium Gallery, which is intended to use Nigerian history, art, heritage and gastronomy to support international dialogue and diplomatic engagement.

Despite the existence of cultural diplomacy initiatives, an important issue is whether cultural exchange programmes actually contribute to Nigeria’s international relations in measurable and meaningful ways. Cultural activities may generate visibility and goodwill, but their diplomatic contribution may depend on factors such as programme continuity, institutional coordination, funding, participation, reciprocity, communication and the extent to which cultural exchanges are connected to wider foreign-policy objectives. Okeugo et al. (2024) identify inadequate funding, fragmented policy implementation, infrastructural limitations and limited global visibility as constraints on Nigerian cultural diplomacy, while Ojukwu and Enuka (2020) identify implementation and financial concerns in relation to FESTAC ’77. At the same time, official Nigerian and foreign-government records demonstrate that cultural exchanges continue to be incorporated into bilateral relationships, including cultural centres, artistic exchanges, film festivals, educational programmes and cultural cooperation agreements. This creates a need for empirical examination of selected Nigerian cultural exchange programmes to determine how they contribute to international relations, particularly through cultural understanding, diplomatic goodwill, people-to-people connections, bilateral cooperation and Nigeria’s international image. It is against this background that this study examines Nigeria’s Cultural Diplomacy and Its Contribution to International Relations: A Study of Selected Cultural Exchange Programmes.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Nigeria possesses considerable cultural resources and has historically used cultural activities as part of its external engagement, yet the strategic contribution of cultural diplomacy to international relations remains insufficiently understood. Nigeria’s cultural diversity, creative industries, festivals, literature, music, film, heritage and artistic traditions provide numerous opportunities for international engagement. However, the existence of these resources does not automatically translate into diplomatic influence or stronger international relationships. Okeugo et al. (2024) identify inadequate funding, policy fragmentation, infrastructure limitations, limited digital capacity and insufficient international visibility as constraints affecting Nigerian cultural diplomacy. Similarly, the experience of FESTAC ’77 demonstrates that large-scale cultural diplomacy can generate substantial international visibility while also raising questions concerning financial cost, implementation and the extent to which cultural expenditure produces long-term national benefits (Ojukwu & Enuka, 2020). The problem is therefore not simply whether Nigeria possesses cultural assets, but how effectively these assets are organised and translated into sustained diplomatic outcomes.

A second problem concerns the implementation and continuity of cultural exchange programmes. Cultural diplomacy often requires sustained interaction rather than isolated events because mutual understanding and international relationships develop through repeated contact. Nigeria has established formal bilateral cultural cooperation mechanisms, and the International Cultural Relations Department of the relevant federal ministry is responsible for negotiating and implementing cultural agreements and protocols with foreign countries. However, the existence of agreements does not necessarily demonstrate that all their intended cultural activities are consistently implemented or that their diplomatic outcomes are systematically evaluated. The case of Nigeria-China relations illustrates the range of cultural and educational exchanges that can exist, including cultural centres, scholarships, university cooperation, film and artistic exchanges and cultural festivals. Nevertheless, the extent to which individual programmes contribute to Nigeria’s diplomatic objectives requires closer examination. This creates a problem of implementation, continuity and evaluation within cultural diplomacy.

Another problem relates to the difficulty of determining the specific contribution of cultural exchange programmes to Nigeria’s international relations. Cultural diplomacy may influence international relationships through several channels, including improved mutual understanding, positive perceptions, people-to-people relationships, educational networks, artistic collaboration, tourism, creative-industry cooperation and diplomatic goodwill. UNESCO (2022) recognises that cultural diplomacy can foster dialogue, trust and cooperation, while Nye’s (2004) soft-power framework suggests that culture can constitute a source of attraction through which states influence international audiences. However, cultural attraction does not automatically produce specific foreign-policy outcomes, and the relationship between cultural engagement and diplomatic results may depend on the wider political and institutional context. Research on Indo-Nigerian relations demonstrates the importance of social and cultural contacts in strengthening bilateral ties, but there remains a need to examine particular Nigerian cultural exchange programmes and identify the mechanisms through which they contribute to international relations.

The central problem addressed by this study is therefore the limited empirical understanding of how selected Nigerian cultural exchange programmes contribute to the country’s international relations. Existing literature has examined cultural diplomacy conceptually, FESTAC ’77 historically, Indo-Nigerian socio-cultural relations, Nigerian cultural institutions and Nigeria-China cultural cooperation, but there remains a need for a focused assessment of selected exchange programmes in terms of their contribution to cultural understanding, diplomatic goodwill, bilateral cooperation and Nigeria’s international image. The continued inclusion of cultural activities in Nigeria’s external relations demonstrates their perceived diplomatic importance, while the identified challenges of funding, policy coordination, infrastructure and visibility indicate that their potential may not always be fully realised. This study therefore seeks to examine selected cultural exchange programmes and determine their contribution to Nigeria’s international relations, while also identifying the challenges affecting their effectiveness.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The broad aim of this study is to examine Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy and its contribution to international relations, with particular reference to selected cultural exchange programmes.

The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the role of selected cultural exchange programmes in promoting Nigeria’s cultural image and identity internationally;
2. determine the contribution of selected cultural exchange programmes to mutual understanding and people-to-people relations between Nigeria and participating countries;
3. assess the contribution of selected cultural exchange programmes to Nigeria’s bilateral diplomatic relations and international cooperation; and
4. identify the challenges affecting the effectiveness of Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy through selected cultural exchange programmes.

1.4 Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. What role do selected cultural exchange programmes play in promoting Nigeria’s cultural image and identity internationally?
2. To what extent do selected cultural exchange programmes contribute to mutual understanding and people-to-people relations between Nigeria and participating countries?
3. To what extent do selected cultural exchange programmes contribute to Nigeria’s bilateral diplomatic relations and international cooperation?
4. What challenges affect the effectiveness of Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy through selected cultural exchange programmes?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no statistically significant relationship between Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy through selected cultural exchange programmes and the country’s international relations.

H1: There is a statistically significant relationship between Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy through selected cultural exchange programmes and the country’s international relations.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to the Federal Government of Nigeria, particularly institutions responsible for foreign affairs, culture, tourism and the creative economy. The findings may provide evidence concerning the extent to which cultural exchange programmes contribute to Nigeria’s international engagement. Such information may assist policymakers in developing cultural diplomacy strategies that connect cultural activities with broader foreign-policy and national-development objectives.

The study will also be useful to the Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Nigerian diplomatic missions abroad. Cultural diplomacy frequently involves activities undertaken through embassies, high commissions, diplomatic missions and bilateral platforms. The findings may provide information on the diplomatic value of cultural exhibitions, artistic exchanges, educational programmes, festivals and other cultural activities and may assist diplomatic missions in strengthening people-to-people engagement.

The study will be significant to the Federal Ministry of Art, Culture, Tourism and the Creative Economy and related cultural institutions. The ministry and its agencies are directly connected with the preservation, promotion and international projection of Nigerian cultural resources. The findings may help identify institutional and operational challenges affecting cultural exchange programmes and provide evidence for improving coordination, funding, documentation and international cultural partnerships.

The study will also benefit Nigerian artists, musicians, filmmakers, writers, performers, academics and other creative professionals who participate in international cultural exchanges. By demonstrating the diplomatic dimensions of cultural activities, the study may contribute to greater recognition of creative professionals as participants in Nigeria’s international engagement. It may also encourage opportunities for international collaboration, cultural exhibitions, performances, educational exchange and creative-industry partnerships.

The study will be useful to students and researchers in international relations, diplomacy, political science, history, cultural studies and related disciplines. It will provide empirical and conceptual material on the relationship between culture and international relations, with specific attention to Nigeria. The study may also serve as a reference for researchers investigating soft power, public diplomacy, cultural diplomacy, international image, nation branding and people-to-people diplomacy.

Finally, the study will be useful to foreign governments, international organisations and cultural institutions that engage with Nigeria through cultural cooperation. Understanding the Nigerian experience may assist international partners in designing cultural exchange programmes that promote reciprocity, mutual understanding and sustainable institutional relationships.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy and its contribution to international relations, using selected cultural exchange programmes as the principal area of investigation.

The geographical scope is Nigeria, although the study will examine international programmes involving Nigeria and selected foreign countries or international partners. The study will focus on individuals and institutions with knowledge of, participation in, or professional involvement in selected cultural exchange programmes.

The conceptual scope covers four major dimensions. The first is the promotion of Nigeria’s cultural image and identity through international cultural activities. The second is mutual understanding and people-to-people relations. The third is the contribution of cultural exchange to bilateral diplomatic relations and international cooperation. The fourth is the institutional and operational challenges affecting Nigerian cultural diplomacy.

The study will focus on selected forms of cultural exchange, which may include cultural festivals, artistic and performing-arts exchanges, film and creative-industry exchanges, educational and academic exchanges, cultural exhibitions, cultural centres, heritage activities and bilateral cultural cooperation programmes.

The study will not attempt to measure the entire performance of Nigeria’s foreign policy. Rather, it will specifically examine the contribution of cultural diplomacy and selected cultural exchange programmes to international relations.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Cultural Diplomacy: The use or exchange of cultural resources, ideas, artistic expressions, heritage, education and other cultural activities to promote mutual understanding, dialogue and relationships between countries and peoples.

International Relations: The interactions and relationships among states and other international actors involving political, economic, cultural, social, diplomatic and strategic matters.

Cultural Exchange: The reciprocal sharing of cultural knowledge, practices, artistic expressions, educational experiences, heritage and creative activities between people or institutions from different countries.

Cultural Exchange Programme: An organised programme through which Nigeria and another country or international partner facilitate cultural, educational, artistic, heritage or creative interaction for the purpose of strengthening cultural relations.

Soft Power: The capacity of a country to influence others through attraction rather than coercion or payment, with culture being one of the major potential sources of such attraction (Nye, 2004).

Cultural Image: The perceptions and representations of a country’s culture, values, traditions, creative expressions and heritage held by people outside that country.

People-to-People Relations: Direct social, educational, cultural, artistic or professional interactions between citizens of different countries that contribute to mutual understanding and international relationships.

Bilateral Relations: Official and unofficial relationships between two countries involving areas such as diplomacy, trade, education, culture, security, tourism and political cooperation.

International Cooperation: Collaborative activities undertaken by countries, international organisations or other international actors to pursue shared interests and objectives.

Cultural Heritage: Tangible and intangible cultural resources inherited from previous generations, including monuments, traditions, languages, festivals, music, dance, crafts, literature and customary practices.

Public Diplomacy: Government-supported communication and engagement with foreign publics intended to explain national values, policies, culture and interests and to develop relationships with international audiences.

Cultural Institution: An organisation involved in the preservation, production, promotion, management or international dissemination of cultural resources and activities, including museums, cultural centres, arts organisations and heritage institutions.

Nigeria’s International Image: The perceptions, impressions and representations of Nigeria held by foreign publics, institutions and other international actors.

Project – Nigeria’s Cultural Diplomacy and Its Contribution to International Relations: A Study of Selected Cultural Exchange Programmes