Project – Social Media Comparison and Academic Self-Efficacy among Senior Secondary School Students: A Study of Selected Public Secondary Schools in Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Education is widely regarded as an important instrument for individual development, social mobility and national development. At the secondary school level, education is expected not only to equip students with academic knowledge but also to develop their confidence, motivation, self-regulation and capacity to pursue educational goals. For students to benefit fully from schooling, therefore, it is not enough for them to possess intellectual ability or access to learning resources; they must also believe that they are capable of successfully performing academic tasks. This belief is commonly described as academic self-efficacy.

Academic self-efficacy refers to students’ beliefs about their capabilities to organise and execute the actions required to accomplish specific academic tasks. It is derived from Bandura’s broader concept of self-efficacy, which emphasises that people’s beliefs about their capabilities influence their motivation, effort, persistence and performance (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Students with stronger academic self-efficacy are more likely to approach difficult academic tasks with confidence, persist when they encounter obstacles and employ effective learning strategies. Conversely, students who doubt their academic capabilities may avoid challenging tasks, give up more easily and interpret academic difficulties as evidence of inability.

Academic self-efficacy is particularly important during adolescence. Senior secondary school students are passing through a developmental period in which their perceptions of themselves are being shaped by interactions with parents, teachers, friends and other members of their social environment. Adolescents become increasingly conscious of how they are perceived by others and how their abilities, appearance, achievements and social status compare with those of their peers. As a result, comparison with others can become an important source of information for evaluating one’s own abilities.

The psychological process through which individuals evaluate themselves in relation to others is explained by Social Comparison Theory. Festinger (1954) proposed that individuals have a tendency to evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves with others, particularly when objective standards for self-evaluation are unavailable. In educational settings, students may compare their grades, intelligence, academic abilities, study habits and achievements with those of their classmates and friends. Such comparisons can influence how students perceive their own academic competence.

Social comparison can take different forms. Upward social comparison occurs when an individual compares himself or herself with someone perceived to be better, more successful or more competent. Downward social comparison occurs when the individual compares himself or herself with someone perceived to be less successful or competent (Festinger, 1954; Suls, Martin, & Wheeler, 2002). Upward comparison may sometimes motivate individuals to improve themselves, but it can also produce feelings of inadequacy, frustration and reduced confidence when the comparison target appears significantly superior.

The emergence and widespread use of social media have significantly transformed the environment within which young people engage in social comparison. Platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, TikTok, Snapchat, WhatsApp and YouTube provide adolescents with continuous access to information about the activities, achievements and lifestyles of their peers and other individuals. Unlike traditional face-to-face interactions, social media allows users to observe, comment on, like and compare themselves with a very large number of people, often beyond their immediate school or neighbourhood environment.

Social media therefore provides an unusually rich environment for social comparison. Adolescents may encounter posts showing classmates receiving excellent examination results, participating in academic competitions, obtaining scholarships, attending prestigious events, learning new skills or displaying other forms of achievement. Because social media content is often selectively presented, students may compare their everyday experiences with carefully selected and positively presented aspects of other people’s lives. This can create distorted perceptions of relative success.

Research has increasingly recognised social comparison as an important feature of adolescents’ social media experiences. Burnell, Trekels, Prinstein and Telzer (2024), in a study of 94 adolescents followed through ecological momentary assessments over 14 days, found that adolescents frequently engaged in social comparisons on social media. Their findings indicated that upward comparisons were associated with poorer momentary self-esteem, while downward comparisons were associated with more positive self-evaluations. This finding is important because self-evaluations developed through social comparison may extend beyond general self-esteem to students’ perceptions of their academic capabilities.

The relationship between social comparison and academic self-perception has also been demonstrated in educational research. Pulford, Woodward and Taylor (2018) developed an Academic Social Comparison Scale and examined students’ comparison tendencies in relation to academic confidence. They reported that students who engaged more frequently in upward academic social comparisons tended to have lower confidence in areas such as numeracy, speaking and information technology. They further observed that students who engaged less in general academic social comparison demonstrated greater confidence in some academic domains.

This relationship is important for senior secondary school students because academic life is inherently comparative. Students receive test scores, examination grades, rankings, teacher evaluations and feedback that can make their relative academic position visible. The competitive nature of senior secondary education may therefore encourage students to evaluate their academic abilities by looking at the achievements of their peers. Social media can intensify this process by extending academic comparison beyond the classroom.

Academic self-efficacy is not simply a general feeling of self-worth. Bandura (1997) explains that self-efficacy is domain-specific and concerns individuals’ beliefs about their capacity to successfully perform particular tasks. Thus, a student may have high confidence in social activities but low confidence in mathematics, or may feel capable of participating in sports while doubting his or her ability to succeed in examinations. Academic self-efficacy specifically concerns confidence in one’s ability to learn, study, complete assignments, understand academic materials, prepare for examinations and achieve educational objectives.

The development of academic self-efficacy is influenced by several sources. Bandura (1997) identified mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion and physiological or affective states as major sources of self-efficacy beliefs. Of particular relevance to the present study is vicarious experience, through which individuals judge their capabilities by observing the performance of others. When students observe peers who appear similar to themselves succeeding academically, such observations may strengthen their belief that they too can succeed. However, when students repeatedly observe peers appearing to perform far better than themselves, they may develop doubts about their own competence.

Research involving adolescents supports the importance of social comparison as a source of self-efficacy information. Usher et al. (2015), in a large study involving 2,511 young students, found that mastery experiences and social persuasion were frequently reported sources of self-efficacy, while social comparison and teacher practices were also important sources. The researchers further noted that sources of self-efficacy differed across academic domains and according to students’ existing levels of self-efficacy.

The relationship between social media and academic self-efficacy is therefore potentially complex. Social media does not necessarily have a uniformly negative effect. Students can use social networking platforms to join educational groups, access tutorials, communicate with classmates, exchange learning materials, discuss assignments and receive encouragement. In these circumstances, social media may provide social persuasion and vicarious experiences capable of strengthening academic self-efficacy.

On the other hand, social media can expose students to highly selective presentations of other people’s achievements. Students may see peers displaying excellent examination results, university admission successes, certificates, awards and other achievements while having little knowledge of the difficulties or failures behind those achievements. Such exposure may lead some students to perceive themselves as academically inferior.

Mann and Blumberg (2022) observed that adolescents’ social media experiences involve continuous monitoring of self-presentation and comparison with others, influencing the way young people construct their possible selves. Their study specifically examined social media use, self-presentation, social comparison and self-esteem among adolescents. This is relevant to education because adolescents’ possible selves can include academic identities such as becoming a high-achieving student or, conversely, fearing academic failure.

The effects of social comparison may also depend upon the direction and nature of the comparison. Upward comparison can serve a self-improvement function when students interpret another person’s success as evidence of what is achievable and use it as motivation to improve. However, it can become harmful when students perceive the comparison as evidence that they lack the ability to succeed. Downward comparison, on the other hand, may temporarily enhance self-evaluation but may not necessarily encourage academic improvement.

Recent research reinforces the importance of considering social comparison in adolescent learning environments. Sheffler and Cheung (2024) found in an experimental study of adolescents that social comparison could dampen learning outcomes in a virtual peer-learning environment. Their study also showed that peer growth-mindset messages could improve learning outcomes, highlighting the importance of the nature of peer information available to students.

The academic environment is therefore not isolated from the social environment. Students’ beliefs about their academic capabilities can be shaped by what they observe in their classrooms, peer groups and increasingly their online communities. The expansion of smartphones and affordable internet-enabled devices has made social media accessible to many Nigerian adolescents. Social media is consequently becoming part of the everyday social environment within which students form opinions about themselves and others.

In Nigeria, the increasing use of social media among young people has generated considerable interest among educators and researchers. Nigerian studies have examined the relationship between social media use and students’ academic outcomes. For example, Emeri (2019) investigated the influence of social media on the academic performance of 250 Senior Secondary School II students from five secondary schools in Alimosho Local Government Area of Lagos State. The study found a significant influence of social media use on students’ academic performance and recommended greater guidance for students concerning appropriate social media use.

Similarly, Akanni (2018) examined social media networking and academic performance among senior secondary school students in public schools in Lagos Mainland Local Government Area. The study reported concerns regarding high social media usage, academic engagement and students’ academic performance. These studies demonstrate that social media has already become a relevant educational issue within Lagos State.

However, much of the Nigerian literature has concentrated on social media use and academic performance, rather than on the psychological mechanism through which social media experiences may influence students’ beliefs about their academic capabilities. This distinction is important. Academic performance represents an observable educational outcome, whereas academic self-efficacy concerns students’ beliefs about what they are capable of doing. A student may perform poorly because of inadequate preparation, but a student with low academic self-efficacy may avoid challenging academic activities even before performance occurs.

Recent Nigerian research has continued to examine social media and academic outcomes. Atomatofa et al. (2024), for example, investigated social media usage time, academic achievement and behaviour among science students in public and private secondary schools in Delta State. The researchers noted that students with access to smartphones for social networking were spending substantial time on social media and examined the implications for academic achievement and behaviour.

These findings demonstrate the relevance of social media to secondary education in Nigeria, but they do not sufficiently address the specific issue of social media comparison and academic self-efficacy. The distinction is particularly important because two students may spend similar amounts of time on social media but respond differently to the achievements of their peers. One student may feel inspired and become more confident, while another may feel inadequate and develop doubts about academic ability.

The problem becomes more significant at the senior secondary school level because students face important academic decisions and examinations. Students in Senior Secondary School II and III, for example, are increasingly concerned about academic performance, external examinations, tertiary education opportunities and future careers. Their perceptions of academic competence may influence their willingness to study difficult subjects, seek assistance, persist with difficult assignments and prepare adequately for examinations.

Academic self-efficacy has important implications for students’ motivation and learning behaviour. Bandura (1997) argued that self-efficacy beliefs influence the amount of effort individuals expend, how long they persist in the face of difficulties and how they respond to setbacks. Students with stronger academic self-efficacy are therefore more likely to approach academic challenges as tasks that can be mastered, whereas students with weaker efficacy beliefs may interpret difficulties as evidence that they cannot succeed.

Social comparison may become particularly influential when students lack clear objective information about their own abilities. A student who is uncertain about his or her academic competence may use peers as a reference point. Social media provides a continuous stream of such reference information. Consequently, students may compare their academic achievements, appearance, friendships, possessions, lifestyles and future prospects with those of peers and influencers.

The potential effect of this comparison is not necessarily uniform. A student’s interpretation of another person’s success is likely to matter. If the student believes that the comparison target is similar and that success is attainable, upward comparison may encourage effort and strengthen perceived capability. If the student perceives the target as exceptionally superior and the gap as impossible to close, the comparison may generate inferiority and weaken self-efficacy.

This issue is especially relevant in public secondary schools. Public schools in Lagos serve students from diverse socioeconomic, family and educational backgrounds. Students may therefore differ substantially in access to smartphones, internet services, private tutoring, educational resources and other forms of support. Social media can make these differences more visible, potentially influencing students’ perceptions of their own circumstances and abilities.

The problem may also be intensified by the selective nature of online self-presentation. Social media users generally choose what to display, meaning that online profiles may emphasise achievements, positive experiences and desirable lifestyles while concealing failures, difficulties and setbacks. Adolescents who compare their ordinary experiences with these selective presentations may develop unrealistic perceptions of how well others are performing.

Recent evidence suggests that social media comparison among adolescents is not merely theoretical. Burnell et al. (2024) found that adolescents frequently engaged in social comparisons during their everyday social media use and that upward comparisons were associated with poorer self-evaluations at particular moments. This provides a strong basis for investigating whether similar comparison processes may be relevant to academic self-beliefs.

Furthermore, research on academic social comparison indicates that comparison can have measurable consequences for academic confidence. Pulford et al. (2018) found that students who made more upward academic comparisons reported lower confidence in some academic domains. Wilson et al. (2014) similarly found that social comparison and perceived academic difficulty contributed to students’ academic self-concept.

Although academic self-concept and academic self-efficacy are related, they are not identical. Academic self-concept concerns students’ perceptions of themselves as learners, whereas academic self-efficacy focuses more specifically on beliefs about the ability to perform particular academic tasks successfully. The present study therefore focuses specifically on academic self-efficacy rather than treating all academic self-perceptions as the same construct.

The relevance of this distinction is supported by research on students’ use of social media and academic self-efficacy. Hanson et al. (2020) investigated social media intensity and first-year college students’ academic self-efficacy in universities in Flanders and the United States. Their findings showed that relationships between specific social media platforms and academic self-efficacy could differ across contexts and platforms. This suggests that social media should not be regarded as a single uniform influence and that contextual investigation is necessary.

In the Nigerian context, there is therefore a need to move beyond the broad question of whether social media is “good” or “bad” for students. The more important educational question is how particular social media experiences, especially comparison with other people, relate to students’ beliefs about their academic abilities. Understanding this relationship may help teachers, school counsellors, parents and education policymakers develop more appropriate interventions.

Ikeja Local Government Area of Lagos State provides a relevant setting for this investigation. Ikeja is an important urban area in Lagos State, characterised by extensive commercial, educational and social activities and high exposure to digital technologies. Senior secondary school students in the area operate within both physical and digital peer environments. Their experiences with social networking platforms may therefore form an increasingly important part of their social and educational lives.

Despite the growing body of literature on social media and students’ academic outcomes, there remains limited empirical evidence specifically examining social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area. Existing Nigerian studies have largely examined social media use, academic performance, reading habits or behaviour. For example, Emeri (2019) examined social media and academic performance among students in Alimosho, while Akanni (2018) examined social media networking and academic performance in Lagos Mainland. These studies provide useful background but leave a conceptual and geographical gap regarding social media comparison and academic self-efficacy in Ikeja.

It is therefore necessary to empirically examine whether students who frequently compare themselves with others on social media demonstrate different levels of academic self-efficacy from those who engage less in such comparisons. Such evidence could contribute to the development of school-based counselling programmes, digital literacy initiatives and interventions aimed at helping adolescents develop healthier patterns of social media use and more realistic academic self-beliefs.

Consequently, this study investigates social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos State. The study seeks to establish whether there is a significant relationship between the extent of students’ social media comparison and their academic self-efficacy.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The increasing penetration of social media into the lives of adolescents has created new opportunities for communication, learning, entertainment and social interaction. At the same time, it has created an environment in which students are constantly exposed to information about the achievements, activities and lifestyles of their peers. For senior secondary school students, who are at a developmental stage characterised by increasing self-awareness and sensitivity to peer evaluation, this constant exposure may influence how they perceive themselves academically.

One major concern is that students may increasingly use social media as a basis for evaluating their own academic abilities. A student may observe a classmate posting an excellent examination result, receiving an award, gaining admission into a prestigious institution or participating in an academic competition and then compare that achievement with his or her own academic situation. While such comparison may sometimes provide motivation, it may also produce feelings of inadequacy, especially where the student perceives the comparison target as superior.

The problem becomes more serious when social media presents only selected aspects of other people’s lives. Students may see the achievements of their peers without seeing the difficulties, failures, study time, family support or other circumstances behind those achievements. As a result, they may develop unrealistic standards against which they judge themselves. This can contribute to self-doubt and may undermine confidence in their own academic abilities.

Academic self-efficacy is important because it influences how students approach academic challenges. According to Bandura (1997), individuals’ beliefs about their capabilities influence their effort, persistence and resilience. A student who believes that he or she is capable of mastering a difficult subject may be more willing to study, seek help and persist after failure. Conversely, a student who believes that he or she lacks the ability to succeed may avoid challenging tasks and withdraw effort.

There is evidence that social comparison can influence academic confidence. Pulford et al. (2018) found that upward academic social comparison was associated with lower confidence in several academic domains. Similarly, research among adolescents has shown that social comparison is an important source of self-evaluation, while recent evidence indicates that upward social comparisons on social media can be associated with poorer immediate self-evaluations.

However, the existing Nigerian literature has largely focused on the general relationship between social media use and academic performance rather than the specific psychological process of social media comparison. Emeri (2019), for instance, found that social media use significantly influenced academic performance among secondary school students in Alimosho Local Government Area of Lagos State. Akanni (2018) similarly investigated social media networking and academic performance among public senior secondary school students in Lagos Mainland. These studies are useful, but academic performance and academic self-efficacy are different constructs.

Thus, a student can have poor academic performance without necessarily having low academic self-efficacy, just as a student may have high academic self-efficacy despite experiencing temporary academic difficulties. Focusing exclusively on examination results may therefore overlook an important psychological factor that influences students’ learning behaviour.

Another problem is that social media comparison can operate in both positive and negative directions. Upward comparison may inspire some students to work harder, while it may discourage others. Downward comparison may temporarily enhance self-evaluation but may not necessarily lead to stronger academic motivation. Therefore, simply measuring the amount of time students spend on social media may not adequately explain the psychological consequences of social media use.

There is also a contextual problem. Much of the available empirical research has been conducted outside Nigeria, and studies conducted in Nigeria have often focused on locations other than Ikeja. For instance, studies have been conducted in Alimosho, Lagos Mainland, and other parts of the country. Findings from these locations cannot automatically be assumed to apply to students in Ikeja because students’ social environments, school contexts, peer cultures, socioeconomic conditions and patterns of technology use may differ.

The absence of adequate local evidence makes it difficult for school counsellors and educators in Ikeja to determine the extent to which social media comparison may be associated with students’ academic self-beliefs. Without such evidence, interventions may focus broadly on reducing social media use without addressing the specific comparison processes that may be affecting students.

Furthermore, social media platforms continue to evolve rapidly. Students can now encounter academic comparison through short-form videos, status updates, stories, online groups, influencer content, examination-result posts and other forms of digital interaction. Consequently, the social environment in which adolescents evaluate their academic abilities is changing faster than traditional school-based approaches to understanding student motivation and self-belief.

The central problem addressed by this study, therefore, is the limited empirical understanding of the relationship between social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area of Lagos State. Although social media use has been associated with academic outcomes among Nigerian students, insufficient attention has been given to the specific comparison processes through which social media may influence students’ beliefs about their academic capabilities.

This study consequently seeks to determine whether social media comparison is significantly related to academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area. The findings are expected to provide evidence that can assist teachers, school counsellors, parents and educational stakeholders in developing strategies for healthier digital engagement and stronger academic self-beliefs among adolescents.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to examine the relationship between social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos State.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives are to:

1. determine the extent to which senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area engage in social media comparison;
2. assess the level of academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area;
3. examine the relationship between social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among the students; and
4. determine whether social media comparison significantly predicts academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in the study area.

1.5 Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. To what extent do senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area engage in social media comparison?
2. What is the level of academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area?
3. What relationship exists between social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among the students?
4. Does social media comparison significantly predict academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in the study area?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos State.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to the following groups:

Students:
The findings may help students understand how comparing themselves with others online can influence their perceptions of their academic abilities. It may encourage students to develop healthier approaches to social media use and avoid unrealistic comparisons.

School Counsellors:
The findings may assist counsellors in identifying students whose academic confidence is affected by negative social comparison. The findings may also inform counselling programmes on digital behaviour, self-efficacy, self-esteem and academic motivation.

Teachers:
Teachers may benefit from a better understanding of the psychological factors affecting students’ academic confidence. This may help teachers provide appropriate encouragement, feedback and learning support to students.

Parents and Guardians:
The study may provide parents with greater awareness of how adolescents’ online experiences can influence academic self-beliefs. This could encourage constructive parental monitoring and discussions about responsible social media use.

School Administrators:
The findings may assist administrators in developing appropriate digital citizenship and student-wellbeing programmes within public secondary schools.

Educational Policymakers:
The study may provide evidence useful for policies concerning students’ digital literacy, social media use, counselling services and psychosocial support in secondary schools.

Researchers:
The study will contribute to literature on social comparison, social media and academic self-efficacy. It may also provide a basis for further studies involving other locations, school types, age groups or psychological variables.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on social media comparison and academic self-efficacy among senior secondary school students in selected public secondary schools in Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos State.

The study is geographically limited to selected public secondary schools within Ikeja Local Government Area. The respondents will comprise senior secondary school students.

Conceptually, the major independent variable is social media comparison, while the dependent variable is academic self-efficacy.

Social media comparison will be considered in terms of students’ tendencies to compare their academic achievements, abilities, progress and educational circumstances with those of other people encountered through social media.

Academic self-efficacy will focus on students’ beliefs concerning their ability to successfully perform academic activities such as understanding difficult subjects, completing assignments, preparing for examinations, managing academic challenges and achieving desired educational outcomes.

The study will not primarily investigate general social media addiction, overall screen time, general self-esteem or actual academic performance except where such variables are discussed as related concepts.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Academic Self-Efficacy:
The belief held by a student concerning his or her capability to successfully perform academic tasks and achieve desired educational outcomes.

Academic Self-Concept:
A student’s general perception and evaluation of himself or herself as a learner in relation to academic abilities and achievements. It is related to, but distinct from, academic self-efficacy.

Adolescents:
Young people undergoing the developmental transition between childhood and adulthood. In this study, the term refers broadly to students within the senior secondary school age range.

Comparison Target:
The person or group with whom an individual compares his or her own characteristics, abilities, achievements or circumstances.

Downward Social Comparison:
A comparison in which an individual evaluates himself or herself against someone perceived to be less successful, capable or advantaged.

Senior Secondary School Students:
Students enrolled in the senior secondary section of secondary education, generally comprising SS I, SS II and SS III.

Social Comparison:
The psychological process through which individuals evaluate their abilities, achievements, opinions or circumstances by comparing themselves with other people.

Social Media:
Internet-based platforms and applications that allow users to create, share, receive and interact with content and with other users. Examples include WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Snapchat and YouTube.

Social Media Comparison:
The process through which students evaluate their academic abilities, achievements, progress or personal circumstances by comparing themselves with other people encountered through social media platforms.

Upward Social Comparison:
A comparison in which a student evaluates himself or herself against someone perceived to be academically more successful, capable or accomplished.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

The study will be organised into five chapters.

Chapter One presents the introduction, background to the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, research hypothesis, significance, scope and operational definition of terms.

Chapter Two will review relevant literature on social media, social comparison, academic self-efficacy and related concepts. It will examine relevant theories, including Social Comparison Theory and Social Cognitive Theory, as well as empirical studies related to the variables.

Chapter Three will present the methodology of the study. It will cover the research design, study area, population, sample size, sampling procedure, research instrument, validity and reliability, procedure for data collection and method of data analysis.

Chapter Four will present, analyse and interpret the data collected from the respondents. The research questions will be answered and the hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance.

Chapter Five will present the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations, followed by suggestions for further studies.

Project – Social Media Comparison and Academic Self-Efficacy among Senior Secondary School Students: A Study of Selected Public Secondary Schools in Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos State