CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The emergence of social media has fundamentally transformed patterns of human communication, social interaction, political engagement, religious expression, and information dissemination across the world. Digital communication technologies have created unprecedented opportunities for individuals to interact beyond geographical, cultural, ethnic, and religious boundaries. Platforms such as Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, TikTok, YouTube, WhatsApp, Telegram, and Snapchat have become integral parts of everyday life, particularly among young people who constitute the largest population of social media users globally (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Unlike traditional media, social media enables instantaneous creation, sharing, and circulation of information with minimal regulatory barriers, making it one of the most influential tools shaping public opinion in contemporary societies.

The rapid growth of internet penetration has significantly altered religious communication and engagement. Religious organizations now use digital platforms for evangelism, Islamic da’wah, theological education, worship services, fundraising, humanitarian outreach, and interfaith engagement. Religious leaders increasingly employ social media to reach wider audiences, particularly youths, through sermons, live broadcasts, podcasts, blogs, and online discussions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, many churches and mosques depended almost entirely on digital platforms for religious activities, highlighting the strategic importance of social media in contemporary religious life (Campbell, 2021).

Despite these positive contributions, the open and decentralized nature of social media has also facilitated the spread of misinformation, disinformation, cyberbullying, extremist propaganda, online radicalization, fake news, and hate speech. The absence of effective gatekeeping mechanisms allows individuals and organized groups to disseminate inflammatory messages capable of provoking fear, hostility, discrimination, and violence. Consequently, scholars increasingly identify social media as both an instrument for peacebuilding and a catalyst for conflict escalation depending on how it is used (Howard, Duffy, Freelon, Hussain, Mari, & Maziad, 2011).

Hate speech has become one of the most disturbing consequences of unregulated online communication. The United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech defines hate speech as any form of communication that attacks, discriminates against, or uses derogatory language toward individuals or groups based on characteristics such as religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, gender, or other identity markers (United Nations, 2019). Religious hate speech specifically refers to expressions that demean, insult, threaten, stereotype, or incite hostility against individuals or communities because of their religious beliefs or affiliations.

Religious hate speech differs from legitimate religious criticism or theological disagreement. While freedom of religion and freedom of expression permit respectful debate on doctrinal differences, hate speech intentionally promotes prejudice, intolerance, discrimination, or violence against members of particular religious communities. Such communication often exploits stereotypes, historical grievances, conspiracy theories, and misinformation to deepen divisions between religious groups.

Globally, several incidents have demonstrated the destructive potential of religious hate speech circulated through digital platforms. Social media has been implicated in fueling anti-Muslim violence in Myanmar, anti-Semitic campaigns in Europe, Islamophobic narratives in Western countries, and sectarian conflicts in parts of the Middle East (United Nations, 2019). These developments have intensified scholarly debates regarding the responsibilities of governments, technology companies, religious organizations, and civil society in regulating harmful online content while protecting freedom of expression.

Interfaith relations refer to the interactions, cooperation, dialogue, and relationships existing among adherents of different religious traditions. Healthy interfaith relations are characterized by mutual respect, tolerance, peaceful coexistence, understanding, collaboration, and recognition of religious diversity. According to Abu-Nimer (2001), sustainable peace in religiously plural societies depends significantly on continuous dialogue, mutual understanding, and cooperative engagement among different faith communities. Positive interfaith relations contribute to social cohesion, national integration, conflict prevention, and democratic stability.

Conversely, negative interfaith relations are characterized by suspicion, prejudice, discrimination, stereotypes, intolerance, social exclusion, and hostility. Such relationships frequently emerge where misinformation, historical grievances, political manipulation, and inflammatory communication dominate public discourse. Social media has increasingly become one of the major spaces where these dynamics unfold, particularly among young people whose identities and opinions are shaped through digital interactions.

Youths occupy a particularly important position in contemporary digital communication. According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2023), young people between the ages of 15 and 24 constitute the most active internet users globally. Their extensive engagement with social media exposes them to enormous educational opportunities while simultaneously increasing their vulnerability to misinformation, online radicalization, cyber harassment, and hate speech. The algorithmic design of social media platforms often reinforces ideological polarization by repeatedly exposing users to content similar to their existing beliefs, thereby creating “echo chambers” that strengthen prejudice and reduce opportunities for constructive engagement (Cinelli et al., 2021).

Nigeria represents one of Africa’s largest digital societies, with over one hundred million internet users and one of the continent’s fastest-growing social media populations. Young Nigerians rely extensively on social media for education, entertainment, political participation, business, religious engagement, and social networking. However, Nigeria’s religious diversity—primarily Christianity and Islam—combined with ethnic plurality and political competition has created conditions where digital platforms sometimes amplify existing social tensions.

Religion occupies a central position in Nigerian public life, influencing politics, education, law, culture, and community development. Although Christianity and Islam have coexisted peacefully in many parts of the country, several communities have experienced periodic religious conflicts fueled by complex interactions involving ethnicity, political competition, economic inequality, indigene-settler disputes, and identity politics (Kukah, 2011). Social media has increasingly become one of the channels through which these tensions are expressed, reinforced, and sometimes escalated.

The circulation of fabricated religious stories, manipulated videos, inflammatory sermons, misleading headlines, and provocative images has contributed to heightened religious polarization in several parts of Nigeria. During periods of communal violence, political elections, terrorist attacks, and religious controversies, false information often spreads rapidly across digital platforms before official verification becomes available. Such misinformation frequently portrays one religious group as victims and another as aggressors, thereby deepening mistrust and encouraging retaliatory attitudes.

Plateau State provides a particularly significant context for examining these dynamics because of its history of recurring ethno-religious conflicts. Since 2001, communities within Jos and surrounding areas have experienced repeated episodes of violence involving Christian and Muslim populations. Although researchers have consistently demonstrated that these conflicts involve political, economic, and indigene-settler dimensions, religion frequently serves as a powerful identity marker around which competing narratives are constructed (Best, 2007; Ostien, 2009).

Within Plateau State, tertiary institutions constitute unique environments where students from diverse religious, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds interact daily. Universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education are expected to promote intellectual development, critical thinking, democratic values, tolerance, and national integration. These institutions provide opportunities for interfaith interactions capable of strengthening social cohesion. However, students are equally active users of social media and may be exposed to online religious narratives capable of shaping their attitudes toward members of other faiths.

Research increasingly suggests that online exposure to religious hate speech influences perceptions of trust, prejudice, stereotypes, willingness to interact, and acceptance of members of different religious communities (Cinelli et al., 2021). Students repeatedly exposed to hostile online religious content may gradually develop negative attitudes toward individuals from other faith traditions, even in the absence of direct personal experiences. Conversely, social media can also facilitate interfaith dialogue, peace campaigns, collaborative humanitarian activities, and educational initiatives promoting religious tolerance.

Several governmental and non-governmental organizations have introduced initiatives aimed at countering online hate speech and promoting peaceful digital engagement. The National Orientation Agency, religious organizations, civil society groups, educational institutions, and peacebuilding organizations have implemented digital literacy campaigns, fact-checking programmes, interfaith dialogue forums, and peace education initiatives targeting young people. International organizations such as UNESCO and the United Nations have similarly emphasized digital citizenship, media literacy, and responsible online communication as essential components of sustainable peacebuilding.

Despite these interventions, concerns remain regarding the growing prevalence of online religious hostility among Nigerian youths. The increasing sophistication of artificial intelligence, anonymous social media accounts, encrypted messaging applications, and algorithm-driven information dissemination has made monitoring and controlling hate speech increasingly difficult. Young people therefore require not only technological literacy but also ethical, civic, and religious education capable of promoting responsible digital engagement.

Understanding how social media influences religious hate speech and interfaith relations among youths has therefore become an important academic, social, and policy concern. Given Plateau State’s unique history of religious diversity and communal conflict, examining students’ experiences within selected tertiary institutions will provide valuable insights into the relationship between digital communication, religious tolerance, and peaceful coexistence. This study therefore seeks to investigate the influence of social media and religious hate speech on interfaith relations among youths in selected tertiary institutions in Plateau State, Nigeria.