Project – Social Media Use and Self-Esteem among Secondary School Students: A Socio-Psychological Study of Selected Schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Education is a major instrument of individual and societal development. Beyond the acquisition of academic knowledge and vocational skills, education contributes to the social, emotional and psychological development of learners. Secondary education is particularly important because it coincides with adolescence, a developmental stage characterised by rapid physical, emotional, cognitive and social changes. During this period, young people increasingly develop their identities, form stronger peer relationships, seek social acceptance and become more conscious of how they are perceived by others. These developmental characteristics make secondary school students particularly relevant to the study of social media use and self-esteem.

Self-esteem refers broadly to an individual’s evaluation or overall sense of worth regarding the self. Rosenberg’s (1965) influential work conceptualised self-esteem as an individual’s attitude toward the self and examined how social experiences and social environments shape adolescents’ self-image. His study of more than 5,000 high-school students demonstrated the importance of social and environmental factors in understanding adolescent self-image. Self-esteem is therefore not formed in isolation but develops through interaction with parents, teachers, peers and the wider social environment.

Adolescence is also a period in which peer approval becomes increasingly significant. Young people often compare their abilities, appearance, achievements and social status with those of people around them. Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory proposes that individuals have a tendency to evaluate their opinions and abilities and may use other people as standards for self-evaluation. In contemporary society, social media has considerably expanded the opportunities available to adolescents for such comparisons because young people can observe the activities, appearance, possessions, achievements and lifestyles of numerous peers and other users online.

Social media refers to internet-based platforms that enable users to create, share and interact with content and with other users. Platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Snapchat, YouTube and WhatsApp have become important parts of contemporary communication. Unlike traditional mass media, social media allows users not only to consume information but also to produce and distribute content, interact with others and receive immediate feedback through likes, comments, shares, reactions and followers.

The rapid expansion of social media has transformed the social environment in which adolescents develop. Young people can communicate with classmates after school hours, maintain friendships across geographical distances, join communities based on shared interests and access educational and entertainment materials. Social media can therefore provide opportunities for social connection, self-expression, learning and identity exploration. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2024) notes that social media has become deeply integrated into adolescent social life and that its effects can involve both potential benefits and risks.

The potential benefits of social media should not be overlooked. Adolescents may use social platforms to maintain friendships, receive peer support, express creativity, access educational resources and participate in communities where they feel understood. The World Health Organization’s review of adolescent social media use similarly acknowledges that responsible use can support social connections, while problematic use can have negative consequences. Therefore, social media should not be regarded as inherently harmful or beneficial; its effects may depend on how, why, how frequently and in what social context young people use it.

One of the most important psychological issues associated with adolescent social media use is self-esteem. Because social media provides users with opportunities to present selected aspects of their lives, adolescents may compare their own everyday experiences with carefully presented images of other people’s lives. Such comparisons can influence how young people perceive their attractiveness, popularity, academic success, social status and personal achievements.

Social comparison can occur in both upward and downward directions. An adolescent may compare himself or herself with someone perceived to be more attractive, successful or popular, which may produce feelings of inadequacy. Conversely, comparing oneself with someone perceived to be less successful may temporarily strengthen one’s self-evaluation. Festinger’s (1954) theory is particularly relevant because social media substantially increases the availability of comparison targets.

Social media also provides mechanisms through which adolescents can receive social approval. The number of likes, comments, followers, shares and views attached to an individual’s posts may be interpreted as indicators of social acceptance. For some adolescents, positive feedback can reinforce feelings of competence and social worth. However, limited engagement, negative comments or social exclusion may produce disappointment and lower perceptions of self-worth.

The relationship between social media use and self-esteem is consequently complex. A systematic review by Kotijah et al. (2024), which examined studies published between 2019 and 2023, found evidence of both positive and negative relationships between social media and adolescent self-esteem. The review included 20 studies and concluded that social media can influence self-esteem in different ways depending on the circumstances of use. This finding is important because it cautions against assuming that greater social media use automatically results in lower self-esteem.

The nature of social media engagement may be more important than simply the amount of time spent online. Passive browsing, active communication, content creation, participation in supportive communities and exposure to idealised images may have different psychological consequences. The 2024 umbrella review by Berryman and colleagues found that the relationship between social media use and adolescent mental health is influenced by individual characteristics, patterns of use, content and platform design. This suggests that studies of social media should consider the quality and nature of online experiences rather than relying exclusively on measures of time spent online.

Problematic social media use represents another important concern. The WHO Regional Office for Europe reported that the proportion of adolescents showing signs of problematic social media use increased from 7% in 2018 to 11% in 2022 in its Health Behaviour in School-aged Children data covering 44 countries and regions. Problematic use was associated with difficulty controlling social media use, withdrawal-like experiences, neglect of other activities and negative consequences in everyday life. Although these data do not represent Nigeria, they demonstrate the growing international importance of understanding how adolescents interact with social media.

Excessive or problematic social media use may interfere with other areas of adolescent life. Students who spend substantial amounts of time online may reduce time devoted to sleep, physical activity, face-to-face interaction and academic activities. The WHO has noted associations between problematic social media use, poorer social and mental well-being, sleep-related problems and other negative consequences. However, it is important not to assume that time online alone causes psychological difficulties because adolescents who already experience social or psychological challenges may also turn to social media more frequently.

This issue of causality has been highlighted in the wider scientific literature. Orben and Przybylski (2019), using specification-curve analysis across three large datasets involving 355,358 adolescents, found that the association between digital technology use and adolescent well-being was much smaller than some previous research had suggested. Their findings demonstrate the importance of methodological caution when interpreting relationships between digital technology use and psychological outcomes. Consequently, a study of social media use and self-esteem should examine the relationship empirically rather than presuming that social media is either harmful or beneficial.

Earlier research has also reported negative associations between certain forms of social media use and psychological well-being. Kross et al. (2013), for example, found that greater Facebook use predicted subsequent declines in subjective well-being among young adults in their experience-sampling study. Although the participants were young adults rather than secondary school students, the study remains relevant to understanding how online social interaction may influence psychological experiences.

The potential effect of social media on self-esteem is particularly important for adolescents because self-esteem is connected with identity formation and social functioning. Adolescents are developing answers to questions such as who they are, how they compare with others and how they are perceived by peers. Social media can become part of this identity-development process because adolescents can deliberately construct online profiles, select photographs, share achievements and express opinions to audiences of varying sizes.

Online self-presentation may influence self-esteem in different ways. A student who receives positive feedback may experience increased confidence, social recognition and belonging. In contrast, a student who receives little attention or negative comments may perceive himself or herself as unpopular or inadequate. The visibility of peer approval can therefore make social evaluation more immediate and measurable.

The problem becomes more complicated when adolescents are exposed to idealised representations of other people’s lives. Social media posts often highlight achievements, attractive appearances, celebrations, vacations, fashionable clothing and positive experiences while excluding ordinary difficulties. Adolescents who compare their complete everyday lives with the carefully selected presentations of others may develop unrealistic perceptions of what constitutes success or attractiveness.

Appearance-related comparisons may be particularly important among adolescents. Images on social platforms can reinforce expectations concerning body shape, clothing, beauty and physical attractiveness. Adolescents who perceive themselves as failing to meet these standards may experience dissatisfaction with their appearance, which can negatively influence self-esteem. The broader literature reviewed by Blanchard et al. (2023) indicates that evidence concerning social media and self-esteem is mixed, reinforcing the need for careful empirical investigation rather than simplistic conclusions.

Peer relationships are another important component of the issue. Secondary school students often use social media to maintain friendships and participate in peer groups. Being included in online conversations and group activities can strengthen belonging, while being ignored, unfollowed, removed from groups or subjected to negative comments may produce feelings of rejection.

Cyberbullying also represents an important pathway through which social media may influence self-esteem. Online insults, threats, rumours, embarrassing photographs and exclusion can affect how students perceive themselves. Unlike traditional face-to-face peer conflict, online content can potentially reach a large audience and remain accessible beyond the school environment. This can increase the psychological burden experienced by affected students.

The educational implications of social media use are also important. Secondary school students have academic responsibilities, and excessive engagement with social media may compete with time required for studying and completing school assignments. However, social media can also be used for educational purposes, collaborative learning, access to information and communication between students. Thus, the educational consequences depend partly on how students balance online activities with academic responsibilities.

Digital literacy is therefore becoming increasingly important in education. The WHO has recommended that schools incorporate digital literacy and healthy online behaviour into efforts to protect adolescent well-being. Such education can help students understand privacy, online relationships, misinformation, cyberbullying, responsible posting and the psychological effects of excessive online engagement.

The African context requires particular attention because social media adoption is occurring alongside rapid changes in communication, youth culture and educational environments. Young Africans increasingly use smartphones and internet-enabled platforms for communication, entertainment, education, entrepreneurship and social interaction. These developments create new opportunities for young people but also introduce psychological and social challenges that schools and families must understand.

Nigeria provides an especially relevant context for studying adolescent social media use. With its large youth population and expanding digital environment, Nigerian secondary school students are increasingly exposed to social networking platforms. Social media has become part of the everyday communication environment for many young people, influencing how they interact with friends, access information and express themselves.

The Nigerian school environment is also socially diverse. Students come from different family backgrounds, socioeconomic circumstances, religious communities and cultural groups. These factors may shape access to smartphones and the internet, patterns of social media use and the meaning students attach to online feedback. Students with greater access to digital devices may have different experiences from students whose access is limited.

The family environment may also influence how adolescents use social media. Parents and guardians may establish rules concerning screen time, online friendships and the platforms students can access. Parenting practices, communication between parents and children and parental digital literacy may influence how young people manage social media. Similarly, students whose parents provide emotional support may respond differently to negative online experiences from students with limited family support.

School policies are another important consideration. Schools differ in their regulations concerning mobile phones and internet use. Some schools may restrict smartphone use during school hours, while others may integrate digital technologies into teaching and learning. These institutional differences may influence the extent to which students interact with social media during school activities.

The relationship between social media use and self-esteem should therefore be examined from a socio-psychological perspective. The socio-psychological approach recognises that individual psychological characteristics are influenced by social interactions and group processes. Self-esteem is not simply an internal psychological characteristic; it is affected by social evaluation, relationships, acceptance and experiences within one’s social environment.

The concept of the “looking-glass self” associated with Cooley (1902) is also relevant to understanding this process. Individuals develop perceptions of themselves partly through how they believe others perceive them. In contemporary digital environments, social media can amplify this process by providing visible indicators of social approval through likes, comments, followers and shares.

Rosenberg’s (1965) work further demonstrates the importance of social experiences in the formation of adolescent self-image. For secondary school students, social media may therefore constitute an additional social environment in which self-evaluations are formed and reinforced.

At the same time, it is important to recognise that social media may strengthen rather than weaken self-esteem for some students. Adolescents who have supportive online friendships may find encouragement, acceptance and opportunities for self-expression. A student who struggles to find like-minded peers in the physical school environment may find an online community that provides social support. The 2024 WHO report similarly notes that heavy but non-problematic social media users may report stronger peer support and social connections.

The quality of social media relationships may therefore matter more than frequency of use alone. Active communication with supportive friends may have different effects from passive consumption of idealised content. Similarly, educational and creative use may differ psychologically from compulsive scrolling or repeated comparison with highly curated images.

Gender may also influence social media experiences. Adolescent boys and girls may use different platforms, engage with different forms of content and experience different forms of social pressure. WHO’s 2024 report found higher rates of problematic social media use among adolescent girls than boys in its European, Central Asian and Canadian sample. Although such findings should not automatically be generalised to Nigerian students, they demonstrate the importance of considering gender when studying adolescent digital behaviour.

Age is another potential factor. Younger secondary school students may have different levels of emotional maturity, parental supervision and digital experience compared with older students. Older students may have greater independence in their online activities but may also experience stronger pressures relating to appearance, popularity, relationships and academic achievement.

Socioeconomic status can similarly shape social media experiences. Access to smartphones, data subscriptions and reliable internet services may differ among families. Students with greater access may spend more time online and encounter a broader range of social media content. At the same time, access does not necessarily determine psychological outcomes because individual characteristics and social relationships also matter.

The growing evidence concerning adolescent social media use demonstrates that there is no single universal effect. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2024) concluded that social media has both potential benefits and risks for adolescent health and that outcomes depend on factors related to the young person, the social context and the characteristics of the digital environment. This reinforces the need for context-specific research.

A further reason for this study is that much of the influential literature on social media and adolescent psychological outcomes has been produced outside Nigeria. Findings from Europe, North America and other regions provide useful theoretical and empirical foundations, but social media experiences may differ across cultures. Family relationships, school structures, peer norms, socioeconomic circumstances and cultural expectations may affect how Nigerian adolescents interpret and respond to social media.

Ibadan North Local Government Area provides a useful context for such investigation. The area contains a substantial population of secondary school students and includes diverse social and educational environments. Students in selected schools may differ in their access to smartphones, internet connectivity, parental supervision, school regulations and peer networks.

Studying selected schools in Ibadan North can therefore provide context-specific evidence on how social media use relates to students’ self-esteem. Such evidence may be useful to teachers, school counsellors, parents, education administrators and policymakers who need to understand the psychological implications of adolescents’ digital behaviour.

The study is also relevant because social media use is unlikely to disappear from students’ lives. Instead of focusing solely on preventing adolescents from using social media, educational institutions need evidence that can help them promote healthy and responsible digital behaviour. Understanding the relationship between social media use and self-esteem can contribute to the development of appropriate guidance and counselling programmes.

School counsellors, in particular, may use such knowledge to help students manage social comparison, online peer pressure, cyberbullying, negative comments and unhealthy dependence on social approval. Parents may also benefit from understanding how online experiences can affect children’s perceptions of themselves.

Teachers can contribute by creating classroom environments where students develop healthy self-concepts and understand that online representations do not necessarily reflect reality. Schools can also incorporate digital citizenship into student development programmes and encourage students to balance online interactions with face-to-face relationships, academic responsibilities and healthy activities.

The study is consequently grounded in the recognition that social media is neither inherently beneficial nor inherently harmful. Rather, its psychological influence may depend on patterns of use, social context, content, individual characteristics and the meaning adolescents attach to online interactions. The systematic review by Kotijah et al. (2024) and the broader umbrella review by Berryman et al. (2024) both reinforce this complexity.

Against this background, the present study examines Social Media Use and Self-Esteem among Secondary School Students: A Socio-Psychological Study of Selected Schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State. The study seeks to determine the pattern of social media use among secondary school students and examine whether social media use is significantly related to their self-esteem. The findings are expected to contribute to the growing body of literature on adolescent digital behaviour and provide useful information for educational and psychological interventions in Nigerian schools.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The rapid expansion of social media has changed the social environment in which secondary school students grow and learn. Platforms such as WhatsApp, TikTok, Instagram, Facebook and YouTube provide young people with opportunities for communication, entertainment, learning and self-expression. However, the same platforms expose adolescents to continuous social evaluation, comparison, online popularity metrics, cyberbullying and idealised representations of other people’s lives.

The central concern is that secondary school students are at a developmental stage when self-esteem is still being formed and influenced by social relationships. Adolescents are increasingly concerned about acceptance, appearance, popularity, academic performance and peer approval. Consequently, frequent exposure to social media feedback and comparison may have important implications for how they perceive their own worth.

A particular concern is the possibility that students may evaluate themselves against unrealistic online standards. Social media users often present selected and favourable aspects of their lives, including attractive photographs, academic achievements, expensive possessions, social activities and successful experiences. Students who compare their ordinary experiences with these highly selected presentations may develop feelings of inadequacy or dissatisfaction.

The problem is further intensified by the importance of online approval. Likes, comments, followers, shares and views can become visible indicators of popularity. Some students may therefore attach excessive importance to the amount of attention their posts receive. Where expected feedback is not obtained, students may experience disappointment or interpret limited engagement as evidence that they are unpopular or less valued.

At the same time, it would be inaccurate to assume that social media always reduces self-esteem. Some students may gain friendship, emotional support, recognition and opportunities for self-expression through social media. Recent systematic evidence has identified both positive and negative associations between social media use and adolescent self-esteem. The problem, therefore, is to determine what relationship actually exists within the particular social and educational context of secondary school students in Ibadan North.

Another concern is problematic social media use. International evidence indicates that a growing proportion of adolescents exhibit difficulty controlling their social media behaviour and experience negative consequences from their online activities. WHO reported that problematic social media use among adolescents in its 44-country and region dataset increased from 7% in 2018 to 11% in 2022. Although these figures are not Nigerian estimates, they demonstrate the growing importance of the issue.

Excessive social media engagement may also compete with activities that support healthy adolescent development. Time spent online may reduce time available for studying, sleeping, physical exercise and face-to-face relationships. The potential consequences are particularly relevant within the school environment because students are expected to balance digital activities with academic responsibilities.

Cyberbullying represents another dimension of the problem. Students can be exposed to insults, ridicule, rumours, embarrassing images and social exclusion through digital platforms. Such experiences can undermine confidence and self-worth, particularly when negative content reaches a large peer audience.

There is also the problem of misinformation and unrealistic social expectations. Adolescents may encounter content presenting distorted ideas about beauty, wealth, relationships, academic success and lifestyle. Without adequate digital literacy and critical thinking skills, students may accept these representations as realistic standards against which they should evaluate themselves.

Despite the growing importance of social media in adolescent life, there is insufficient context-specific evidence concerning its relationship with self-esteem among secondary school students in particular Nigerian local government areas. Much of the existing international evidence comes from different cultural and educational contexts. Orben and Przybylski (2019), for example, showed that associations between digital technology use and adolescent well-being can be small and sensitive to methodological choices, highlighting the need for careful local research rather than broad assumptions.

There is consequently a need to investigate the issue within Ibadan North Local Government Area. Students in the area may have different patterns of social media use depending on age, gender, family background, access to digital devices, peer relationships and school environment. These contextual factors may influence the relationship between social media use and self-esteem.

The problem addressed by this study is therefore the uncertainty concerning whether and to what extent social media use is associated with self-esteem among secondary school students in selected schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State.

Without empirical evidence, parents, teachers, counsellors and education administrators may find it difficult to determine whether students’ social media habits constitute a significant psychological concern or whether social media can be incorporated into students’ lives in ways that support healthy development.

This study consequently seeks to provide empirical evidence on the relationship between social media use and self-esteem among secondary school students in selected schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area. The findings may assist schools and families in developing evidence-based approaches to digital literacy, counselling, responsible social media use and the promotion of healthy self-esteem among adolescents.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to examine the relationship between social media use and self-esteem among secondary school students in selected schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the pattern and level of social media use among secondary school students in selected schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area;
2. assess the level of self-esteem among secondary school students in the selected schools;
3. identify the major social media platforms commonly used by secondary school students;
4. examine the relationship between frequency of social media use and students’ self-esteem; and
5. determine whether the nature of social media engagement is significantly related to students’ self-esteem.

1.5 Research Questions

The study will answer the following research questions:

1. What is the pattern and level of social media use among secondary school students in selected schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area?
2. What is the level of self-esteem among secondary school students in the selected schools?
3. What social media platforms are commonly used by secondary school students?
4. What relationship exists between frequency of social media use and students’ self-esteem?
5. What relationship exists between the nature of social media engagement and students’ self-esteem?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between social media use and self-esteem among secondary school students in selected schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to secondary school students because it will provide greater awareness of how their social media behaviours may relate to their perceptions of themselves. The findings may encourage students to adopt healthier patterns of online engagement and develop more critical attitudes toward social comparison and online approval.

Teachers will benefit from the study because it will improve their understanding of the social and psychological dimensions of students’ digital behaviour. This may help teachers identify students who are experiencing difficulties associated with online interactions and refer them to appropriate support.

School counsellors will be important beneficiaries of the research. The findings may assist counsellors in developing programmes addressing self-esteem, social comparison, cyberbullying, online peer pressure and responsible social media use.

Parents and guardians will also benefit because the findings may help them understand how social media forms part of their children’s social environment. Such knowledge may support more constructive communication about screen use, online relationships, digital safety and self-worth.

School administrators may use the findings to develop appropriate guidelines for digital technology and social media use within the school environment. Rather than relying solely on restrictions, schools may use the findings to develop balanced digital citizenship and student-well-being programmes.

Educational policymakers may also benefit from the study. Evidence from the research may contribute to policy discussions concerning adolescent digital literacy, school counselling, student welfare and the responsible integration of digital technology into education.

The study will also be relevant to psychologists, sociologists and educational researchers because it will contribute to understanding the interaction between digital social environments and adolescent psychological development.

Finally, the study will provide a useful reference for future researchers investigating social media use, self-esteem, adolescent development, peer relationships, digital behaviour and educational outcomes in Nigeria.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on social media use and self-esteem among secondary school students in selected schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State.

The independent variable is social media use, which will be examined in terms of frequency of use, commonly used platforms, duration of engagement and nature of online activities. The dependent variable is self-esteem, which will be examined in terms of students’ overall evaluation and perception of their personal worth.

The study will focus on secondary school students because adolescence is an important developmental period for identity formation, peer relationships and self-evaluation. The geographical scope will be restricted to selected secondary schools within Ibadan North Local Government Area.

The study will not attempt to examine every possible psychological consequence of social media use, such as depression, anxiety, academic achievement or sleep disorders, except where such issues are relevant to explaining the relationship between social media use and self-esteem.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Social Media: Internet-based platforms that allow users to create, share, receive and interact with digital content and communicate with other users.

Social Media Use: The frequency, duration, intensity and nature of an individual’s interaction with social media platforms.

Self-Esteem: An individual’s overall evaluation and sense of personal worth or value.

Secondary School Students: Learners enrolled in secondary education within the schools selected for the study.

Adolescent: A young person undergoing the developmental transition between childhood and adulthood, generally corresponding to the teenage years and, in this study, primarily represented by secondary school students.

Social Comparison: The process through which individuals evaluate themselves by comparing their abilities, characteristics, achievements or circumstances with those of other people.

Online Social Interaction: Communication and relationship-building activities conducted through internet-based social platforms.

Problematic Social Media Use: A pattern of social media behaviour characterised by difficulty controlling use and experiencing negative consequences in daily life.

Cyberbullying: The use of digital technologies and online platforms to intimidate, threaten, insult, embarrass, harass or socially exclude another person.

Peer Influence: The effect that friends, classmates and other individuals within an adolescent’s social group have on the individual’s attitudes, perceptions and behaviour.

Socio-Psychological Study: An approach that examines the interaction between social relationships, social environments and psychological processes in shaping individual behaviour and development.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

The study will be organised into five chapters. Chapter One presents the introduction, background to the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, hypothesis, significance, scope and operational definitions of terms. Chapter Two will review relevant literature on social media use and self-esteem, including the conceptual review, theoretical framework and empirical review. Chapter Three will present the research methodology, including the research design, study area, population, sample size, sampling procedure, research instrument, validity and reliability, data-collection procedure and method of data analysis. Chapter Four will present, analyse and discuss the findings of the study in relation to the research questions and hypothesis. Chapter Five will provide the summary, conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for further studies.

Project – Social Media Use and Self-Esteem among Secondary School Students: A Socio-Psychological Study of Selected Schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State