Project – The Influence of Household Food Hygiene Practices on Foodborne Illness Prevention: A Study of Selected Communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Food is essential for human survival, growth and maintenance of health; however, food can also become a vehicle for disease when it is contaminated by biological, chemical or physical hazards. Foodborne illnesses comprise a wide range of diseases caused by the consumption of contaminated food or water and may result from bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins and chemical substances. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that contaminated food causes more than 200 diseases and that approximately 600 million people globally become ill after consuming unsafe food, with about 420,000 deaths occurring annually. The burden is particularly substantial in low- and middle-income countries, where weaknesses in food safety systems, sanitation, water supply and hygiene practices can increase exposure to foodborne hazards (WHO, 2024). These concerns establish food safety as an important public health issue and demonstrate the need for preventive practices at every stage of the food chain, including food preparation, storage and consumption within households.

Households represent an important setting for foodborne illness prevention because a considerable proportion of food preparation, storage and consumption occurs within the home. Food can become contaminated through inadequate handwashing, unclean utensils and surfaces, contact between raw and cooked foods, insufficient cooking, inappropriate storage temperatures and the use of unsafe water or contaminated raw materials. The WHO and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) emphasise that food safety is everyone’s responsibility and specifically recognise the household as an important setting for improving food safety. The WHO Five Keys to Safer Food—keeping clean, separating raw and cooked foods, cooking thoroughly, keeping food at safe temperatures, and using safe water and raw materials—provide simple preventive principles that consumers can apply during food preparation and storage (WHO, 2022). Thus, household food hygiene practices constitute an important first line of defence against food contamination and foodborne illness.

Household food hygiene involves a range of behaviours performed before, during and after food preparation. These include selecting safe food ingredients, washing hands appropriately, cleaning cooking utensils and surfaces, washing fruits and vegetables, separating raw meat from ready-to-eat foods, cooking food adequately, protecting prepared food from contamination and storing perishable foods under appropriate conditions. Research on food handling in domestic environments demonstrates that unsafe practices can occur even when consumers consider themselves knowledgeable about food safety. For example, studies of household food handling have identified inefficient handwashing and practices that can facilitate cross-contamination as important risks, while consumers may sometimes engage in practices they believe are protective but which can actually spread microorganisms between surfaces and foods (Møretrø et al., 2022). This indicates that prevention of foodborne illness depends not simply on awareness but also on the consistent application of appropriate food hygiene behaviours within households.

The Nigerian context makes household food hygiene particularly important because food safety challenges occur across production, distribution, preparation and consumption. Onyeaka et al. (2021), in a review of food safety culture in Nigeria, noted that the country’s diverse social and cultural environment, rapid urbanisation and varying socioeconomic conditions create complex food safety challenges. Their review also observed that food safety knowledge does not always translate into appropriate practices and identified the need for interventions that take local beliefs, behaviours and circumstances into account. Similarly, studies of food safety in Nigeria have reported concerns involving food handling, market hygiene, transportation, food vending and preparation. These findings indicate that foodborne illness prevention cannot rely exclusively on regulatory control of commercial food establishments; household consumers also have an important role in preventing contamination and protecting household members from unsafe food (Onyeaka et al., 2021; Oduori et al., 2022).

Evidence from Lagos State provides further justification for examining household food hygiene. Uchendu (2018) assessed food safety practices among food vendors and households in Lagos State and documented several poor practices, including cutting vegetables before washing them, prolonged exposure of food items, inappropriate food storage and other behaviours that could facilitate contamination. The study included focus-group discussions with 200 women concerning household food handling and cooking practices and concluded that poor food safety practices could have implications for food contamination and foodborne diseases. Although the study was conducted in areas of Lagos other than Ikorodu, its findings demonstrate that household food preparation practices within Lagos State can present potential food safety concerns and therefore support the need for location-specific research in other parts of the state.

Ikorodu is an important setting for examining household food hygiene because it is a rapidly developing part of Lagos State with a growing population and substantial residential, commercial and institutional activity. Existing research in Ikorodu has already demonstrated that food safety is a relevant public health concern. For example, a study of food vendors in Ikorodu Local Government Area examined awareness and adoption of food hygiene practices, while more recent research published in 2026 assessed Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) implementation among food handlers in selected food establishments in Ikorodu and identified food safety as an ongoing concern in the area (Adegbite et al., 2026). Although these studies focus mainly on commercial food handlers rather than households, they provide local evidence that food safety practices in Ikorodu warrant continued investigation. Examining household practices can therefore complement existing evidence by shifting attention from commercial food establishments to food preparation and handling within domestic environments.

The prevention of foodborne illness requires more than the presence of food safety knowledge because behaviour is influenced by attitudes, perceptions, resources, social norms and the environment in which food is prepared. A systematic review of food safety perspectives and practices among consumers and vendors in Nigeria found that most studies reported better knowledge than actual practices and that self-reported practices were often better than practices observed directly (Grace et al., 2022). This finding is important for household food safety because people may report awareness of recommended practices while not consistently applying them during everyday food preparation. Similarly, research on food safety culture in Nigeria has emphasised the importance of understanding local practices and using appropriate communication and behavioural approaches to improve food safety (Onyeaka et al., 2021). Therefore, examining actual or reported household hygiene practices and their relationship with foodborne illness prevention is necessary for developing contextually appropriate public-health interventions.

Foodborne illness prevention at household level is particularly important because contamination can occur through multiple pathways before food is consumed. In Nigeria, microbiological evidence has demonstrated the potential presence of foodborne pathogens in foods and beverages consumed by the public. Oduori et al. (2022), in a systematic review of foodborne disease hazards in beverages consumed in Nigeria, identified contamination by organisms including Salmonella, Staphylococcus and Escherichia species in several categories of beverages. Research on food sold in Lagos has likewise detected potentially pathogenic organisms and reported contamination concerns, demonstrating that food safety risks can enter households through purchased food products as well as through handling and preparation practices (Adeniran et al., 2017). These findings reinforce the importance of household-level preventive behaviours because consumers cannot always determine whether food is contaminated by visual inspection and must therefore rely on safe purchasing, preparation, storage and handling practices to reduce exposure.

The effectiveness of household food hygiene practices in preventing foodborne illness also depends on people’s ability to translate food safety information into routine behaviour. Evidence from food safety interventions indicates that knowledge and self-efficacy can influence safe food-handling behaviour. A 2021 experimental study found that interventions designed to increase food safety knowledge and self-efficacy improved safe food-handling behaviour among young adults (Liu et al., 2021). In Nigeria, food hygiene training among food handlers has similarly been shown to improve food hygiene knowledge, demonstrating the potential value of structured education and training (Abdullahi et al., 2021). These findings suggest that strengthening food safety education and practical household skills may contribute to foodborne illness prevention, although local household conditions and practices must first be understood.

Against this background, the present study focuses on the influence of household food hygiene practices on foodborne illness prevention among selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State. The study is premised on the understanding that foodborne illness prevention begins not only with government regulation and commercial food safety systems but also with everyday decisions made within households concerning food purchase, washing, preparation, cooking, storage and serving. Although previous studies have examined food safety among vendors and food handlers in Lagos and Ikorodu, relatively less attention has been directed specifically towards the relationship between household food hygiene practices and foodborne illness prevention in selected communities of Ikorodu. The study therefore seeks to generate community-specific evidence that can support public-health education and interventions aimed at reducing preventable foodborne illness.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Foodborne illness remains an important public health problem despite the availability of relatively simple preventive measures. The WHO estimates that hundreds of millions of people become ill annually as a result of consuming contaminated food, with substantial mortality and socioeconomic consequences. Foodborne hazards may enter food at different points in the food chain, including during preparation and storage in households. The WHO’s Five Keys to Safer Food provide practical measures for preventing contamination, yet the continued global burden of foodborne disease indicates that recommended food safety practices are not consistently implemented everywhere (WHO, 2024; WHO, 2022). The problem therefore extends beyond the availability of food safety recommendations to whether households possess the knowledge, resources and behavioural practices required to apply those recommendations consistently.

A major concern is the gap that may exist between food safety knowledge and actual household practices. Evidence from Nigeria indicates that food safety knowledge is often better than observed practice, suggesting that awareness alone may not be sufficient to produce sustained behaviour change (Grace et al., 2022). Similarly, Onyeaka et al. (2021) identified weaknesses in food safety culture and public engagement in Nigeria and emphasised the importance of understanding local food safety behaviours when designing interventions. At household level, unsafe practices involving hand hygiene, food preparation, separation of raw and cooked foods, storage and protection of prepared meals may create opportunities for contamination. Where these practices are repeated routinely, household members may be exposed to preventable foodborne hazards even when they are aware that food hygiene is important.

The problem is also relevant to Lagos State and, more specifically, Ikorodu. Previous research in Lagos State documented poor food safety practices among households and food vendors, including practices capable of increasing the likelihood of contamination (Uchendu, 2018). In Ikorodu, existing research has focused largely on food vendors and commercial food establishments, including recent assessment of HACCP implementation among food handlers (Adegbite et al., 2026). While these studies provide useful evidence concerning food safety within the area, they do not adequately explain how households themselves handle, prepare, store and serve food or how these practices may contribute to foodborne illness prevention. The absence of sufficient household-specific evidence creates a need for research that examines food hygiene practices at community level in Ikorodu.

The central problem addressed by this study is therefore the limited empirical evidence concerning the influence of household food hygiene practices on foodborne illness prevention in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State. Existing evidence demonstrates food safety concerns in Nigeria and Lagos, as well as food hygiene challenges among commercial food handlers in Ikorodu, but there is a need to establish whether household practices such as handwashing, food cleaning, separation of raw and cooked foods, adequate cooking, safe storage and use of safe water are associated with foodborne illness prevention within selected Ikorodu communities. Generating such evidence is important because households are directly involved in food preparation and consumption, and interventions designed without understanding household practices may fail to address important pathways through which food contamination occurs.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine the influence of household food hygiene practices on foodborne illness prevention in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. assess the level of household food hygiene practices among residents of selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State;
2. determine the level of awareness of foodborne illness prevention among residents of selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State;
3. examine the influence of food preparation and handling practices on foodborne illness prevention among households in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State; and
4. determine the influence of food storage and personal hygiene practices on foodborne illness prevention among households in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What is the level of household food hygiene practices among residents of selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State?
2. What is the level of awareness of foodborne illness prevention among residents of selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State?
3. To what extent do food preparation and handling practices influence foodborne illness prevention among households in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State?
4. To what extent do food storage and personal hygiene practices influence foodborne illness prevention among households in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between household food hygiene practices and foodborne illness prevention among residents of selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

Households and Community Residents

The study will be significant to households because it will provide information on everyday practices that may contribute to the prevention of foodborne illness. The findings may help household members understand the importance of appropriate hand hygiene, safe food preparation, adequate cooking, separation of raw and cooked foods, proper storage and use of safe water. The WHO identifies these practices as fundamental measures for reducing food contamination (WHO, 2022).

Community Health Workers

The study will provide useful information to community health workers and other public-health practitioners involved in health education and disease prevention. The findings may help them identify specific food hygiene behaviours requiring greater attention during community health education. This is important because food safety interventions are more likely to be effective when they respond to the actual practices and perceptions of the population concerned (Onyeaka et al., 2021).

Public Health Authorities

The findings may assist public-health authorities in Lagos State in designing targeted food safety education and community-based interventions. Evidence concerning household food hygiene can help public-health programmes move beyond commercial food establishments and address food safety behaviours within domestic settings.

Environmental Health Officers

The study may be useful to environmental health officers because it can provide information about household practices related to food preparation, sanitation, storage and environmental hygiene. Such information may assist in developing community sensitisation programmes aimed at reducing conditions that encourage food contamination.

Healthcare Professionals

The findings may assist healthcare professionals by providing additional information concerning preventable household factors associated with foodborne illness. This may support stronger emphasis on food safety during routine health promotion, particularly when educating families about diarrhoeal diseases and other food-related illnesses.

Policymakers

The study may provide evidence that can support policies and programmes addressing food safety, environmental sanitation and health education at community level. The findings may be particularly relevant to the implementation of preventive food safety strategies consistent with national and international food safety priorities.

Researchers and Students

The study will contribute to the literature on food hygiene, household practices and foodborne illness prevention in Nigeria. It may provide a useful reference for future researchers examining food safety behaviour, environmental health, community health and foodborne disease prevention in Lagos State and other Nigerian communities.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the influence of household food hygiene practices on foodborne illness prevention in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

Geographical Scope

The study will be conducted in selected communities within Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.

Population Scope

The study will involve adult residents or household members who are directly involved in food purchasing, preparation, cooking, storage or serving within their households.

Content Scope

The study will focus on:

• household personal hygiene practices;
• food preparation and handling practices;
• cleaning and washing practices;
• separation of raw and cooked foods;
• cooking practices;
• food storage and temperature-control practices;
• use of safe water and raw materials;
• awareness of foodborne illness prevention; and
• the relationship between household food hygiene practices and foodborne illness prevention.

The study will focus on household practices rather than commercial food vendors, restaurants or industrial food-processing establishments.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Food: Any substance intended for human consumption, including foods prepared, cooked, stored or served within households.

Food Hygiene: The conditions and practices necessary to maintain food safety and prevent food contamination throughout purchasing, preparation, cooking, storage and serving.

Household Food Hygiene Practices: The routine behaviours carried out by household members to maintain the safety and wholesomeness of food, including handwashing, cleaning, food preparation, cooking, storage and serving practices.

Food Safety: The assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared, stored and consumed according to its intended use.

Foodborne Illness: Any illness resulting from the consumption of food or beverages contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms, parasites, toxins, chemicals or other harmful substances.

Foodborne Illness Prevention: Measures taken to reduce or eliminate the risk of illness arising from contaminated food, including appropriate hygiene, cooking, storage, cleaning and food-handling practices.

Food Preparation: Activities involved in making food ready for cooking or consumption, including washing, cutting, cleaning, mixing and handling ingredients.

Food Handling: The actions involved in touching, preparing, serving, packaging, storing or otherwise managing food before it is consumed.

Food Storage: The process of keeping food under conditions that preserve its safety and quality and prevent contamination or microbial growth.

Personal Hygiene: Practices undertaken by individuals to maintain cleanliness and reduce the possibility of transferring microorganisms to food, including appropriate handwashing, clean clothing and general bodily cleanliness.

Cross-Contamination: The transfer of harmful microorganisms or contaminants from one food, surface, utensil, person or environment to another.

Safe Water: Water that is sufficiently free from harmful microorganisms, chemicals and other contaminants to be safely used for drinking, washing food and utensils, cooking and other household food-related activities.

Household: A person or group of people living together and sharing common domestic arrangements, including food preparation and consumption.

Food Hygiene Awareness: The level of knowledge and understanding possessed by household members concerning safe food preparation, handling, storage and consumption and the prevention of foodborne illness.

Project – The Influence of Household Food Hygiene Practices on Foodborne Illness Prevention: A Study of Selected Communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State