Project – The Influence of Social Media on Political Campaigns and Electoral Behaviour in Nigeria: A Study of the 2023 General Elections

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Political participation is a fundamental component of democratic governance. In a representative democracy, citizens participate in political processes through voting, membership of political parties, attendance at political meetings, political discussions, campaigns, contacting public officials and other forms of civic engagement. Elections are particularly important because they provide citizens with the opportunity to choose political representatives and influence the direction of government. However, the effectiveness of electoral democracy depends not only on the existence of elections but also on the quality of political communication, voter mobilisation, access to information and citizens’ ability to make informed electoral choices.

The emergence of social media has significantly transformed political communication across the world. Platforms such as Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube and TikTok have created new channels through which politicians, political parties, journalists, civil society organisations and citizens communicate about political issues. Unlike traditional mass media, social media enables users to create, distribute, comment on and share political content with relatively few institutional barriers. This has altered the relationship between political actors and citizens and has made political communication more immediate, interactive and participatory.

The significance of social media in contemporary politics is particularly important because political communication is no longer controlled exclusively by traditional media organisations. Political actors can communicate directly with citizens through personal accounts, campaign pages, livestreams, short videos and messaging groups. Citizens can also respond to political messages, challenge politicians, mobilise supporters and create alternative political narratives. Fisher et al. (2024) note that social media, particularly WhatsApp, has become increasingly important to how political parties organise, coordinate and communicate during elections in Africa.

Nigeria provides an important context for examining this transformation. Since the return to democratic rule in 1999, the country has conducted several general elections, with each electoral cycle experiencing changes in political communication and campaign strategies. Traditional media such as radio, television and newspapers remain important, but social media has increasingly become part of the political communication environment. The growing availability of mobile phones and internet-enabled devices has allowed political information to circulate rapidly among citizens.

The development of Nigeria’s digital political environment has been particularly significant among young people. Nigerian youths constitute an important segment of the country’s electorate and are among the most active users of digital communication platforms. Social media provides young Nigerians with opportunities to express political opinions, discuss candidates and policies, organise campaigns, participate in political debates and mobilise others. The platform has therefore become an important arena for political socialisation and electoral engagement.

The relationship between social media and political participation in Nigeria predates the 2023 elections. Research on Nigeria’s Fourth Republic indicates that social media has increasingly contributed to political participation and civic engagement. Suleiman and Peter (2025), examining evidence from 2015 to 2023, describe social media as an important component of Nigeria’s changing political communication environment and its relationship with political participation.

Social media also became an important instrument of political mobilisation during the 2015 and 2019 elections. Political parties and candidates increasingly used Facebook, Twitter and other platforms to disseminate campaign messages, publicise political programmes and interact with supporters. These developments established a foundation for the much more extensive use of digital platforms during the 2023 general elections.

The 2023 general elections were particularly significant because they occurred within a political environment in which social media had become deeply integrated into everyday communication. The presidential election featured major political parties and candidates, including the All Progressives Congress (APC), the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), the Labour Party (LP) and their presidential candidates. Campaign communication extended beyond conventional rallies, television appearances and newspaper advertisements to include extensive activity on social networking and messaging platforms.

The 2023 elections also demonstrated the growing importance of online political communities. Supporters of different candidates developed digital networks through which they shared campaign messages, videos, graphics, political commentary, slogans and information about rallies and political activities. Social media consequently became a space where political identities were constructed and strengthened. Online communities could transform individual political preferences into collective mobilisation.

The Labour Party’s presidential campaign particularly demonstrated the capacity of social media to support youth-centred political mobilisation. The emergence of the “Obidient” movement around Peter Obi illustrated how online political communities could become significant components of contemporary election campaigning. Research on Nigeria’s 2023 election has identified WhatsApp as an important environment in which supporters of the movement constructed and circulated political narratives.

Social media also provided political candidates with opportunities to bypass some traditional gatekeepers. A candidate could release a campaign statement directly to followers rather than relying entirely on television stations, newspapers or radio broadcasters. This direct communication potentially allowed candidates to communicate more frequently with supporters and present themselves in ways that aligned with their preferred political image.

Another important feature of social media political campaigns is interactivity. Traditional political communication often involves a one-way flow of information from politicians to voters. Social media allows voters to comment, react, repost, criticise and reinterpret campaign messages. This can create a more participatory political environment. Bello (2023), using Afrobarometer data, found evidence linking obtaining news through social media with civic engagement and political participation among Nigerians.

Social media may also contribute to voter mobilisation. Political parties and supporters can use digital platforms to remind citizens about registration, campaign events, debates and election dates. Online networks can also encourage individuals to discuss political choices with family members, friends and colleagues. During the 2023 election period, political campaign messages circulated extensively through messaging applications and social networking sites.

A study specifically examining WhatsApp and voting behaviour among University of Nigeria, Nsukka students during the 2023 presidential election found that political campaigning on WhatsApp influenced voter turnout among the students studied. The study employed a survey of 400 students and concluded that WhatsApp political campaigning had implications for electoral participation. This finding is important because it illustrates how social media communication can potentially move beyond political awareness to influence actual electoral behaviour.

Electoral behaviour refers to the ways in which individuals and groups make political choices and participate in elections. It includes voting decisions, candidate preferences, party identification, voter turnout, campaign participation, political discussion and other election-related actions. Social media may influence electoral behaviour by providing voters with information about candidates, shaping perceptions of political personalities, creating political identities and influencing judgments about issues.

However, access to information does not necessarily mean access to accurate information. One of the major concerns surrounding social media and elections is the circulation of misinformation and disinformation. Because users can produce and share content rapidly, false or misleading information may circulate before it can be independently verified. During elections, such information may concern candidates, political parties, electoral procedures, polling locations, election results or alleged misconduct.

The problem of misinformation is particularly serious because voters may make political decisions based on information they believe to be accurate. Social media algorithms and network structures can also expose users repeatedly to information that confirms their existing political preferences. This may contribute to political polarisation and reduce opportunities for citizens to encounter alternative viewpoints.

Political communication on social media may also involve political propaganda and image management. Political actors can employ professional communicators, influencers and coordinated online networks to promote favourable narratives about candidates and attack opponents. A 2024 study of political influencers in Nigeria examined how “Data Boys” used social media to promote, rehabilitate and sustain the images of political leaders, demonstrating that online political influence can involve organised image-management strategies.

Another concern is the use of social media for political attacks, hate speech and incitement. Campaign competition can encourage supporters to portray opponents negatively, sometimes through insulting, inflammatory or discriminatory content. Where political disagreements become strongly personalised, social media may intensify existing political divisions rather than promote constructive democratic debate.

Nevertheless, social media also has the potential to strengthen electoral accountability. Citizens can record and share evidence of electoral irregularities, monitor political activities and challenge claims made by political actors. Digital platforms can therefore increase the visibility of political events that might otherwise receive limited attention. Birch (2017) argues more broadly that media exposure can contribute to electoral integrity by exposing misconduct and generating pressure for accountability and reform.

The role of social media in political campaigns is therefore not necessarily positive or negative in itself. Its influence depends on how political actors, voters, journalists, civil society organisations and technology platforms use it. Social media can expand political participation, but it can also facilitate misinformation, manipulation and polarisation. It can make political communication more inclusive while simultaneously creating new forms of political exclusion for citizens with limited internet access or digital literacy.

The digital divide remains an important consideration in Nigeria. Not all citizens have equal access to smartphones, reliable internet connections, electricity or affordable data. Consequently, social media-based political communication may reach some sections of the population more effectively than others. Political parties that rely heavily on digital campaigning may therefore communicate more effectively with urban and younger voters than with citizens who have limited digital access.

The use of social media during elections also raises questions concerning political equality. On the one hand, social media can provide relatively inexpensive communication channels for candidates and movements that lack the financial resources required for extensive television and newspaper advertising. On the other hand, well-funded political organisations can employ large teams of digital campaigners, influencers and content producers, thereby creating unequal capacity to dominate online political conversations.

The Nigerian electoral management environment has also recognised the importance of digital communication. The Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) has incorporated social media into its communication strategy, including the use of different platforms to reach citizens and establish feedback mechanisms. This demonstrates the growing importance of digital platforms not only to political parties but also to electoral institutions.

The 2023 elections therefore provide an important case for studying the relationship between social media, political campaigns and electoral behaviour. The election occurred at a time when Nigerian citizens had substantial experience with social media as a political communication tool, while the intense competition among political parties generated unprecedented volumes of political content online.

The influence of social media during the 2023 elections was not restricted to presidential campaigns. Political communication also occurred around senatorial, House of Representatives and state-level elections. Candidates and supporters used social media to promote political messages, mobilise voters, attack opponents and respond to electoral developments.

Research focusing on the 2023 general elections in Lagos State, for example, found that social media constituted an important platform for political communication, participation and engagement during the election. Oni (2024) specifically examined the role of social media in shaping political participation during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

Similarly, research on Nigerian youths during the 2023 elections has identified social media as an important channel through which young people encountered and engaged with political information. Ezeigbo and colleagues’ study of Nigerian youths’ participation in the 2023 general elections examined the relationship between youth participation and the use of social media.

The significance of youth participation is particularly important because Nigeria’s young population represents an important political constituency. Social media has enabled young people to become not only consumers of political information but also producers of political content. Through videos, memes, hashtags, live broadcasts, comments and online discussions, young citizens can participate in political communication without formally belonging to political parties.

At the same time, social media engagement should not automatically be interpreted as effective political participation. Liking a political post, sharing campaign material or commenting on a candidate’s page does not necessarily mean that a person will vote or participate in offline political activities. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate whether online political engagement actually influences electoral behaviour.

This distinction is central to the present study. The study does not assume that social media automatically determines how Nigerians vote. Rather, it seeks to examine the extent to which social media political campaigns influenced voter awareness, candidate preference, political discussion, mobilisation and voting behaviour during the 2023 general elections.

The study is also relevant because the 2023 elections generated intense political debates concerning the credibility of electoral information and the role of technology. Social media became a major arena for competing interpretations of electoral events. Claims concerning voting processes, electoral malpractice, candidate popularity and election outcomes circulated rapidly online, making digital information an important part of citizens’ electoral experiences.

Furthermore, social media created new possibilities for political accountability while simultaneously creating opportunities for manipulation. Citizens could challenge politicians and report political developments, but political actors could also use digital networks to influence public perceptions. Understanding this dual role is necessary for evaluating the contribution of social media to democratic governance in Nigeria.

The study therefore examines the influence of social media on political campaigns and electoral behaviour in Nigeria, using the 2023 general elections as the case study. It focuses on the major ways social media platforms were used for political communication and mobilisation and how such usage influenced citizens’ political awareness, candidate evaluation, political participation and voting behaviour.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The emergence of social media has changed the character of political communication in Nigeria. Political parties, candidates and their supporters increasingly use Facebook, WhatsApp, X, Instagram, YouTube and other platforms to communicate with voters. During the 2023 general elections, political messages circulated extensively through these platforms, making social media an important component of the electoral environment.

Despite the growing use of social media in Nigerian politics, there remains uncertainty concerning the extent to which online political communication actually influences electoral behaviour. A high level of social media engagement does not necessarily translate into voter turnout or changes in candidate preference. Citizens may consume political information online without participating in elections, while others may encounter political content without allowing it to influence their voting decisions.

The problem is further complicated by the large volume of misinformation and unverified political information circulated through social media. False claims concerning candidates, political parties, electoral processes and election results can influence voters’ perceptions. Because social media content can be shared rapidly, misinformation can reach large audiences before corrective information becomes available.

Another problem concerns political polarisation. During highly competitive elections, social media discussions can become divided along party, ethnic, regional or personality-based lines. Supporters may interact primarily with individuals who share their political preferences, creating online communities in which opposing perspectives are dismissed. Such environments may weaken constructive political dialogue and increase hostility between political groups.

The use of social media by political influencers also presents a challenge. Political influencers can shape public opinion by promoting particular candidates or attacking opponents. The emergence of organised online actors in Nigeria demonstrates that political influence on social media is not always spontaneous or citizen-driven. The 2024 study of Nigerian “Data Boys” illustrates how social media can be deliberately used to construct and rehabilitate political images.

There is also the problem of unequal access to digital political communication. While social media has expanded political participation among connected citizens, individuals without reliable internet access, smartphones or adequate digital literacy may be excluded from important online political conversations. This raises questions about whether social media strengthens democratic inclusion or creates another form of political inequality.

Furthermore, political parties may increasingly prioritise social media campaigning without necessarily providing voters with substantive policy information. Campaign content may focus on personalities, slogans, emotional appeals and attacks against opponents rather than detailed discussion of policy alternatives. Such communication may influence voters emotionally without necessarily improving their capacity to make informed electoral decisions.

The 2023 general elections therefore present an important empirical problem. Although several studies have examined social media and political participation, there is still a need to assess the relationship between social media political campaigns and broader electoral behaviour. Recent studies have examined particular platforms, youth populations or specific geographical locations, including research on WhatsApp and students and research on social media participation in Lagos State. However, the broader relationship between social media campaign exposure and electoral behaviour remains worthy of systematic investigation.

The problem is consequently not whether Nigerians used social media during the 2023 elections—the evidence clearly indicates that they did—but how and to what extent that use influenced political campaigns and voters’ electoral behaviour. It is necessary to determine whether social media primarily increased political awareness and participation or whether its influence was weakened by misinformation, political manipulation, polarisation and unequal digital access.

This study therefore investigates the influence of social media on political campaigns and electoral behaviour in Nigeria, with specific reference to the 2023 general elections. The study seeks to provide empirical evidence concerning the role of social media in shaping political communication, voter mobilisation, candidate perception and electoral decision-making.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to examine the influence of social media on political campaigns and electoral behaviour in Nigeria, with particular reference to the 2023 general elections.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the extent to which social media was used as a platform for political campaigns during the 2023 general elections;
2. assess the influence of social media political campaigns on voters’ political awareness;
3. determine the influence of social media on voters’ candidate preferences during the 2023 general elections;
4. examine the influence of social media on voter mobilisation and electoral participation; and
5. identify the major challenges associated with the use of social media in political campaigns and electoral behaviour in Nigeria.

1.5 Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. To what extent was social media used as a platform for political campaigns during the 2023 general elections?
2. How did social media political campaigns influence voters’ political awareness?
3. How did social media influence voters’ candidate preferences during the 2023 general elections?
4. What influence did social media have on voter mobilisation and electoral participation?
5. What were the major challenges associated with the use of social media in political campaigns and electoral behaviour in Nigeria?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between exposure to social media political campaigns and electoral behaviour among voters in Nigeria during the 2023 general elections.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to political parties and political candidates because it will provide information on the effectiveness of social media as a campaign and voter-mobilisation tool. The findings may assist political actors in understanding how voters receive, interpret and respond to online campaign messages.

The study will also be useful to the Independent National Electoral Commission because understanding the influence of social media on electoral behaviour can assist the Commission in developing effective digital voter-education and public-information strategies. INEC already recognises social media as an important channel for communicating with Nigerian citizens and creating feedback mechanisms.

Civil society organisations and election-monitoring groups may benefit from the findings because they can use the evidence to strengthen voter education, fact-checking and digital-literacy programmes. Such initiatives are particularly important where misinformation may affect voters’ understanding of electoral processes.

The study will be useful to Nigerian voters, particularly young voters, because it may increase awareness of the opportunities and risks associated with obtaining political information through social media. It may encourage citizens to critically evaluate political information before sharing or using it to make electoral decisions.

Journalists and media organisations may also benefit from the study. The findings can contribute to a better understanding of the changing relationship between traditional media and social media in political communication and election reporting.

The study will be valuable to political scientists and researchers because it contributes to the growing literature on digital politics, electoral behaviour, political communication and democratic participation in Nigeria.

Finally, the study may assist policymakers in developing appropriate approaches to online political communication, misinformation and electoral integrity while maintaining citizens’ rights to political expression and participation.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the influence of social media on political campaigns and electoral behaviour in Nigeria, using the 2023 general elections as the case study.

The study covers major social media platforms used for political communication, including Facebook, WhatsApp, X, Instagram, YouTube and related digital platforms. It focuses on social media use for campaign messaging, voter mobilisation, political awareness, candidate image-building, political discussion and electoral decision-making.

The study’s dependent variable is electoral behaviour, which includes voter awareness, candidate preference, voter mobilisation, political participation and voting decisions. The independent variable is social media political campaigning, including exposure to campaign messages, online political discussions, sharing of campaign content and interaction with political actors.

Although the 2023 general elections covered the entire federation, the empirical aspect of the study will be conducted within the geographical area selected by the researcher. Therefore, the study does not claim that every Nigerian voter experienced social media campaigns in exactly the same way.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Social Media: Internet-based platforms that enable users to create, share, receive and interact with information and content, including Facebook, WhatsApp, X, Instagram and YouTube.

Political Campaign: Organised activities undertaken by political parties, candidates and their supporters to communicate political messages, persuade voters and obtain electoral support.

Social Media Political Campaign: The use of social media platforms by political candidates, parties, supporters and campaign organisations to disseminate political messages, promote candidates, mobilise voters and influence public opinion.

Electoral Behaviour: The attitudes, decisions and actions of citizens in relation to elections, including political participation, candidate preference, party preference, voting intention and actual voting.

Political Participation: The involvement of citizens in political activities such as voting, campaigning, political discussions, party activities, contacting political representatives and other forms of civic engagement.

Voter Mobilisation: Activities designed to encourage citizens to participate in electoral processes, particularly voter registration, campaign activities and voting.

Political Awareness: The extent to which citizens possess knowledge and understanding of political candidates, parties, policies, electoral processes and political issues.

Misinformation: False or inaccurate information shared without necessarily having the intention to deliberately deceive.

Disinformation: False or misleading information deliberately created or distributed with the intention of deceiving or influencing an audience.

Political Engagement: The degree to which individuals interact with political information, actors, parties, campaigns and political issues.

2023 General Elections: The elections conducted in Nigeria in 2023 for the presidency, National Assembly and state-level elective offices.

Voter: A citizen who is legally qualified and registered to participate in an election.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

The study is organised into five chapters. Chapter One presents the introduction, background to the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, hypothesis, significance, scope and operational definitions. Chapter Two will review relevant literature on social media, political campaigns and electoral behaviour and will present the conceptual review, theoretical framework and empirical review. Chapter Three will discuss the research methodology, including the research design, study population, sample size, sampling technique, research instrument, validity, reliability, data-collection procedure and method of data analysis. Chapter Four will present, analyse and discuss the findings of the study in relation to the research questions and hypothesis. Chapter Five will provide the summary, conclusion and recommendations and identify areas for further research.

Project – The Influence of Social Media on Political Campaigns and Electoral Behaviour in Nigeria: A Study of the 2023 General Elections