Project – The Psychological Consequences of Online Public Shaming Among Undergraduate Students of the University of Ilorin.

CHAPTER ONE

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF ONLINE PUBLIC SHAMING AMONG UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN

1.1 Background to the Study

The development of digital technology and social media has significantly transformed the way individuals communicate, interact and express opinions in contemporary society. Platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, WhatsApp and other online spaces allow users to share information, photographs, videos and personal experiences with large audiences within a short period. Although these platforms provide opportunities for social connection, information sharing, entertainment and public participation, they have also created new forms of interpersonal aggression and social punishment. One such behaviour is online public shaming, which occurs when an individual is exposed to public criticism, ridicule, humiliation or condemnation through digital platforms, often before a large and sometimes unknown audience. Online public shaming may involve the circulation of embarrassing photographs, screenshots of private conversations, insulting comments, accusations, edited videos or personal information intended to damage an individual’s reputation. Unlike private disagreements, online shaming can become widely visible, searchable and repeatedly circulated, making it difficult for the affected person to escape the experience. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2021) identifies online risks such as cyberbullying, harmful content and privacy violations as important concerns affecting children and young people in digital environments. These developments make it necessary to examine the psychological consequences of online public shaming, particularly among university students who frequently use digital platforms for academic, social and personal communication.

Online public shaming is closely related to cyberbullying, online harassment and digital humiliation, although the concepts are not entirely identical. Cyberbullying generally involves repeated or intentional aggression carried out through electronic communication, while online harassment may include offensive, threatening or unwanted digital conduct. Online public shaming specifically emphasises the public exposure and humiliation of a person before an online audience, often with the intention or effect of attracting condemnation, ridicule or reputational damage. A single incident can generate widespread humiliation when a post, photograph or video is shared repeatedly by different users. The experience may be intensified by comments, reposts, tagging, memes and the participation of strangers who have no direct knowledge of the person involved. Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder and Lattanner (2014), in their meta-analytic review of cyberbullying among youth, established that electronic victimisation is associated with important psychosocial difficulties. Similarly, Patchin and Hinduja (2010) found that cyberbullying victimisation was associated with lower self-esteem among adolescents. Although these studies focus broadly on cyberbullying rather than public shaming alone, they provide a useful foundation for understanding how public online humiliation can affect an individual’s sense of personal worth, emotional stability and social identity.

The psychological consequences of online public shaming may include anxiety, depression, shame, embarrassment, fear, emotional distress, loneliness, loss of self-confidence and reduced self-esteem. Individuals who are publicly humiliated online may become excessively concerned about how others perceive them, particularly when the content is accessible to classmates, lecturers, family members, employers and members of the wider community. The affected person may repeatedly revisit the incident, anticipate further ridicule or become fearful of participating in online and offline social activities. The persistence of digital content can also prolong distress because embarrassing material may continue circulating after the original incident has occurred. A systematic review by Arif, Qadir, Martins and Khuwaja (2024), which examined 32 studies involving 29,593 university and college students, found associations between cybervictimisation and depression, anxiety, stress, lower self-esteem and suicidal behaviour. The review also identified possible effects on students’ academic concentration and productivity. In addition, the umbrella review by Marciano and colleagues (2024) found that cyberbullying victimisation was consistently associated with emotional and psychological difficulties, including anxiety, depression, stress, loneliness and reduced self-esteem. These findings demonstrate why online public shaming should be considered a psychological and social concern rather than merely an unpleasant experience on social media.

Undergraduate students may be particularly exposed to online public shaming because university life involves extensive social interaction, identity development, peer relationships and participation in digital communities. Students use social media to communicate with friends, share opinions, express personal identities, discuss academic issues and participate in campus activities. However, disagreements, relationship problems, controversial posts, allegations of misconduct, appearance-related comments and the circulation of private information may expose students to public humiliation. The consequences may be more serious where the individuals involved belong to the same academic department, hostel, association, religious group or friendship network, because online embarrassment may continue into face-to-face interactions. Goffman’s (1963) discussion of stigma explains how socially discredited identities can influence the way individuals are treated and how they perceive themselves. Although his work predates social media, the concept of stigma is useful for understanding how online exposure may attach negative social labels to individuals and influence their relationships within a university environment. Similarly, the findings of Arif et al. (2024) indicate that cybervictimisation among university students is associated with psychological difficulties that can affect their emotional well-being and everyday functioning.

In Nigeria, the expansion of internet access and social media participation has increased opportunities for communication among young people, including university students. However, digital participation has also created conditions in which rumours, offensive comments, embarrassing images, private messages and allegations can be circulated rapidly. Online public shaming may occur through student WhatsApp groups, anonymous social media accounts, departmental platforms, campus gossip pages and other online communities. A student may become a target because of an alleged relationship issue, academic disagreement, political or social opinion, personal appearance, financial difficulty or a perceived violation of social expectations. Mustapha, Muhammad and Olowoniyi (2021), in their study titled Prevalence and Forms of Online Harassment Among Undergraduates of a Nigerian University, examined online harassment among 420 undergraduates and drew attention to the exposure of Nigerian university students to different forms of online harassment. Oniye (2022), in a study of cyberbullying among university undergraduates in Kwara State, also examined its causes, effects and control measures. These studies are relevant because they demonstrate that online victimisation is not merely a foreign concern but an issue requiring attention within Nigerian higher education institutions. Nevertheless, public shaming deserves specific examination because its defining feature is the public exposure and humiliation of an individual before an online audience.

The University of Ilorin provides an important setting for examining this issue because its undergraduate population participates in academic, social and extracurricular activities that increasingly involve digital communication. Students use online platforms for sharing information, discussing campus events, maintaining relationships, organising student activities and expressing personal views. These interactions can create opportunities for online embarrassment and public humiliation, especially when private information or controversial content is circulated beyond its intended audience. Research conducted among University of Ilorin undergraduates has already identified concerns relating to students’ psychological and mental well-being. For example, a study on psychiatric morbidity among undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin reported psychiatric morbidity among 23.6% of the 3,179 students whose questionnaires were analysed, with peer relationships and other personal and social factors among the associated considerations (Abiodun et al., 2021). In another related study, Mustapha et al. (2021) investigated the prevalence and forms of online harassment among undergraduates of a Nigerian university, including the University of Ilorin context. These studies establish the relevance of examining students’ mental well-being and online experiences within Nigerian universities. However, they do not by themselves establish the prevalence or psychological consequences of online public shaming among University of Ilorin undergraduates.

Despite the social and academic benefits of digital communication, online public shaming may create lasting difficulties for affected students. Students who experience public humiliation may withdraw from social interactions, avoid posting online, lose confidence in expressing their opinions or become reluctant to participate in academic and extracurricular activities. Some may experience fear of being recognised, judged or mocked by their colleagues, while others may struggle with concentration, sleep, academic motivation and interpersonal relationships. The experience may also affect students who witness public shaming, as they may fear becoming future targets or feel pressured to participate in the humiliation of others. Arif et al. (2024) identify depression, anxiety, stress, lower self-esteem and reduced academic concentration among the psychological and functional outcomes associated with cybervictimisation among university students. The World Health Organization (2022) also emphasises the importance of addressing mental health challenges among young people and creating supportive environments that promote psychological well-being. It is therefore important to investigate the forms of online public shaming experienced by undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin, the psychological consequences associated with such experiences and the ways students cope with them. This study is designed to provide a clearer understanding of the problem and contribute to efforts aimed at promoting a safer and more supportive digital environment within the university community.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The increasing use of social media among university students has created opportunities for communication, networking and information sharing, but it has also exposed students to online behaviours capable of damaging their emotional and psychological well-being. One of these behaviours is online public shaming, through which individuals are publicly ridiculed, criticised, exposed or humiliated before a digital audience. Among undergraduate students, this may occur when embarrassing photographs, private conversations, personal information, allegations or controversial opinions are circulated through social media platforms and campus-based online groups. The affected student may experience repeated insults, negative comments, mockery and unwanted attention from people within and outside the university community. Although online harassment and cyberbullying have received some academic attention in Nigeria, online public shaming remains a distinct issue requiring focused investigation. Mustapha, Muhammad and Olowoniyi (2021) found widespread online harassment among undergraduates in a Nigerian university, with dogpiling and trolling among the forms reported. Their findings demonstrate that online victimisation is a relevant concern in Nigerian higher institutions, but they do not specifically establish the forms and psychological consequences of public shaming among undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin.

A major problem associated with online public shaming is its potential to produce psychological distress that may continue beyond the original incident. Students who are publicly humiliated may experience embarrassment, shame, anxiety, fear, sadness, loneliness, loss of confidence and reduced self-esteem. The situation may become more difficult when the humiliating material is repeatedly shared or when the student continues to encounter people who have seen and commented on it. Unlike some face-to-face disagreements, online content can remain accessible and may be circulated beyond the original audience, making it difficult for the affected person to regain a sense of privacy and control. Arif et al. (2024), in a systematic review involving 29,593 university and college students, found associations between cybervictimisation and depression, anxiety, stress, lower self-esteem and suicidal behaviour. Similarly, Kasturiratna et al. (2025) reported consistent associations between cyberbullying victimisation and negative psychological outcomes, including emotional problems, loneliness and reduced self-esteem. These findings make it necessary to investigate the psychological experiences of students who are subjected to public humiliation online rather than assuming that such incidents are harmless forms of social media interaction.

Another concern is the possible effect of online public shaming on students’ academic participation and social relationships. Undergraduate students are expected to attend lectures, participate in group assignments, interact with colleagues, engage in campus activities and maintain relationships within the university environment. However, a student who has been publicly humiliated online may become withdrawn, avoid social gatherings, lose confidence in expressing opinions or become reluctant to participate in academic activities for fear of further ridicule. Public shaming may also create tension among friends, classmates, roommates and members of student associations, particularly where individuals take sides or continue spreading the humiliating content. Although the psychological consequences of online victimisation have been documented in broader university populations, the extent to which online public shaming affects students’ academic concentration, peer relationships and participation in university life at the University of Ilorin requires specific investigation. Arif et al. (2024) identified reduced academic concentration and productivity among some cybervictimised students, while Buhari et al. (2021) found that psychiatric morbidity among University of Ilorin undergraduates was associated with several personal and social factors, including relationships with peers and lecturers.

Despite the growing relevance of online public shaming, there is insufficient context-specific evidence establishing its forms, frequency, psychological consequences and coping experiences among undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin. Existing Nigerian studies have examined online harassment and cyberbullying among university students, including undergraduates in Kwara State, but these broader concepts do not fully explain the particular experience of being publicly exposed and humiliated before an online audience. For example, Oniye (2022) examined the causes, effects and control measures of cyberbullying among university undergraduates in Kwara State, while Mustapha et al. (2021) investigated online harassment among undergraduates in a Nigerian university. These studies provide useful foundations, but a focused assessment of online public shaming among University of Ilorin undergraduates remains necessary. The central problem this study addresses is therefore the limited understanding of how online public shaming affects students’ emotional well-being, self-esteem, social relationships and academic experiences. The study seeks to examine the forms of online public shaming experienced by undergraduates, assess its psychological consequences, determine its implications for students’ social and academic lives, and identify the coping strategies available to affected students.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The general objective of this study is to examine the psychological consequences of online public shaming among undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Identify the major forms and circumstances of online public shaming experienced by undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin.

2. Examine the psychological consequences of online public shaming on undergraduate students, particularly in relation to anxiety, depression, shame, emotional distress and self-esteem.

3. Assess the effects of online public shaming on students’ academic participation, social relationships and general well-being.

4. Examine the coping strategies adopted by affected students and the support mechanisms available to them within the university environment.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What are the major forms and circumstances of online public shaming experienced by undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin?

2. What are the psychological consequences of online public shaming on undergraduate students, particularly in relation to anxiety, depression, shame, emotional distress and self-esteem?

3. What are the effects of online public shaming on students’ academic participation, social relationships and general well-being?

4. What coping strategies are adopted by affected students, and what support mechanisms are available to them within the university environment?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested in the study:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between exposure to online public shaming and the psychological well-being of undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will be significant to undergraduate students, university management, counselling and psychological services, parents, policymakers, researchers and the general public. It will provide a better understanding of the psychological effects of online public shaming and contribute to efforts aimed at creating a safer digital environment for university students.

Undergraduate students: The study will help students understand the possible psychological consequences of publicly humiliating others online. It will encourage responsible social media behaviour, respect for privacy and awareness of the emotional experiences of individuals who become victims of online shaming. It may also encourage affected students to seek appropriate assistance rather than suffer silently.

University management: The findings will provide useful information to the management of the University of Ilorin on the experiences of students who encounter online public shaming. The study may support the development or improvement of institutional policies addressing online harassment, digital misconduct, privacy violations and harmful social media behaviour among students.

Counselling and psychological services: The study will be useful to university counsellors, psychologists and other student-support professionals. It may help them understand the emotional and psychological difficulties associated with online public shaming and identify appropriate counselling interventions for affected students. The findings may also encourage the development of awareness programmes, psychological support services and referral mechanisms.

Parents and guardians: The study will help parents and guardians appreciate the psychological challenges students may experience through online interactions. It may encourage them to provide emotional support, maintain open communication and assist affected students in seeking appropriate professional help when necessary.

Policymakers and regulatory institutions: The findings may provide useful information for stakeholders concerned with digital safety, cyber harassment, privacy protection and the welfare of young people. It may contribute to discussions on responsible digital citizenship and the need for appropriate measures to protect individuals from online humiliation and abuse.

Researchers and students: The study will contribute to academic literature on online public shaming, cybervictimisation, psychological well-being and social media behaviour. It may serve as a reference for future research in psychology, sociology, social work, communication studies, criminology and related disciplines.

The general public: The study will create awareness of the possible consequences of online public shaming and encourage responsible use of digital platforms. It may promote empathy, respect for individual dignity and greater understanding of the psychological harm that can result from public humiliation online.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the psychological consequences of online public shaming among undergraduate students of the University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.

Geographically, the research is limited to the University of Ilorin. The respondents will comprise undergraduate students enrolled in the university, irrespective of their faculties, departments, levels of study or gender, subject to the sampling procedure adopted for the research.

In terms of content, the study examines the forms and circumstances of online public shaming, including public ridicule, exposure of private information, circulation of embarrassing photographs or videos, online insults, negative comments, trolling and the public sharing of private conversations. It will also examine the psychological consequences of these experiences, particularly anxiety, depression, shame, embarrassment, emotional distress, loneliness and reduced self-esteem.

Furthermore, the study considers the effects of online public shaming on students’ academic participation, social relationships and general well-being. It will also investigate the coping strategies adopted by affected students and the support mechanisms available to them within the university environment. The study is concerned specifically with public humiliation through digital platforms and does not assume that every form of online disagreement or criticism constitutes public shaming.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Online Public Shaming: The act of publicly exposing, ridiculing, condemning or humiliating an individual through digital platforms, often by circulating embarrassing information, photographs, videos, private conversations or negative allegations before an online audience.

Psychological Consequences: The emotional, cognitive and behavioural effects experienced by individuals following exposure to online public shaming, including anxiety, depression, shame, fear, emotional distress, loneliness and reduced self-esteem.

Undergraduate Students: Individuals enrolled in undergraduate degree programmes at the University of Ilorin.

Cyberbullying: The use of digital communication platforms to deliberately harass, threaten, intimidate or humiliate another person, often through repeated hostile behaviour.

Online Harassment: Unwanted, offensive, threatening or humiliating behaviour directed at an individual through internet-based communication platforms.

Anxiety: A psychological state characterised by excessive worry, fear, nervousness or apprehension, which may occur when a student anticipates further online humiliation or negative judgement.

Depression: A mental health condition characterised by persistent sadness, loss of interest, hopelessness and other emotional or behavioural difficulties. In this study, it refers to depressive symptoms that may be associated with experiences of online public shaming, not necessarily a clinical diagnosis.

Self-Esteem: An individual’s perception and evaluation of personal worth, confidence and value.

Emotional Distress: A state of psychological discomfort involving feelings such as sadness, embarrassment, fear, anger, frustration or emotional pain.

Social Relationships: The interpersonal connections and interactions students maintain with friends, classmates, roommates, lecturers and other members of the university community.

Coping Strategies: The psychological, social and behavioural methods adopted by students to manage or recover from the effects of online public shaming.

Digital Platforms: Internet-based applications and services, including Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, WhatsApp and other social networking platforms used for communication and content sharing.

Project – The Psychological Consequences of Online Public Shaming Among Undergraduate Students of the University of Ilorin.