Project – The Role of Fact-Checking in Combating Political Misinformation on Social Media: A Study of Selected Social Media Users in Abuja, FCT.

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The rapid development of digital communication technologies has transformed political communication, public debate, and citizens’ access to information. Social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, TikTok, YouTube, and X enable political parties, candidates, government institutions, journalists, civil society organisations, and ordinary citizens to publish and circulate political messages with considerable speed. These platforms provide opportunities for political participation, public accountability, civic education, and the exchange of opinions on governance and national development. However, the same features that facilitate rapid communication can also enable false or misleading political claims to circulate widely before their accuracy is established. Wardle and Derakhshan (2017) explain that the contemporary information environment contains different forms of information disorder, including misinformation and disinformation, which can undermine the quality of public communication. Similarly, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2018) identifies digital platforms as important channels through which misleading information can spread, emphasising the need for verification, media literacy, and responsible journalism. Political misinformation on social media has therefore become an important issue for democratic societies because citizens need reliable information to evaluate political leaders, understand public policies, and make informed electoral decisions.

Political misinformation refers to false, inaccurate, or misleading information about political actors, parties, elections, public policies, government decisions, or political events that circulates without necessarily being deliberately created to deceive. It differs from disinformation, which generally involves the deliberate production or dissemination of false information with the intention to mislead. Wardle and Derakhshan (2017) distinguish these forms of information disorder by considering both the nature of the content and the intentions associated with its creation or circulation. In political contexts, misinformation may include fabricated statements attributed to public officials, manipulated photographs, misleading election statistics, false claims about candidates, inaccurate reports of electoral procedures, and old images presented as evidence of current events. Such content can circulate through public posts, private messages, group chats, forwarded voice notes, short videos, and screenshots detached from their original context. UNESCO (2018) warns that the expression “fake news” can be imprecise and politically weaponised, particularly when it is used to dismiss legitimate reporting or criticism. Accordingly, this study uses the term political misinformation to focus on false or misleading political content and examines fact-checking as a means of assessing claims against available evidence.

Fact-checking has emerged as an important method for assessing the accuracy of claims made by politicians, public institutions, news organisations, and other influential sources. It involves identifying a verifiable claim, locating relevant evidence, consulting credible sources, examining the context in which the claim was made, and communicating a reasoned assessment of its accuracy. Fact-checking can be undertaken by professional news organisations, independent verification groups, civil society organisations, researchers, and ordinary social media users who apply systematic verification methods. UNESCO (2018) identifies fact-checking and social media verification as practical approaches to addressing misinformation, including the assessment of sources, images, and other forms of online content. Nyhan and Reifler (2010), in their research on political misinformation, examined whether corrections can reduce the influence of inaccurate information and demonstrated the importance of investigating how people respond when misleading claims are challenged. Fact-checking should not be understood simply as labelling a post “true” or “false”; effective verification requires transparent methods, credible evidence, clear explanations, and attention to the context of the original claim. Its relevance to the present study lies in determining how social media users encounter, understand, trust, and use fact-checking information when they are exposed to political misinformation.

The potential effectiveness of fact-checking is closely connected to how people process information and respond to corrections. Social media users may be influenced by political loyalty, prior beliefs, emotional reactions, repeated exposure, and trust in the person sharing a message. As a result, presenting a correction does not guarantee that every user will accept it or abandon a previously held belief. Nyhan and Reifler (2010) found that corrections can interact with individuals’ prior beliefs in complex ways, highlighting the importance of examining the conditions under which corrections work. Later research has also shown that the effects of fact-checking can vary by the form of correction and the circumstances in which it is delivered. Walter et al. (2020), in a meta-analysis of fact-checking research, found that fact-checking can improve political beliefs and reduce misperceptions on average, while its effects are not uniform across all contexts. These findings suggest that the role of fact-checking should be assessed in terms of more than the publication of corrections. Relevant considerations include whether users notice the correction, understand the evidence presented, regard the verifier as credible, and are willing to reconsider the original claim. The present study therefore treats fact-checking as a communication and verification process whose usefulness may depend on the credibility, accessibility, clarity, and acceptance of corrections.

The importance of fact-checking becomes particularly evident during election periods, when political information can influence public opinion, candidate evaluations, electoral participation, and confidence in democratic institutions. Political competition often generates large volumes of claims about candidates’ records, public spending, electoral procedures, security, party manifestoes, and the conduct of electoral bodies. When inaccurate claims circulate unchecked, citizens may find it difficult to distinguish evidence-based information from partisan assertions or manipulated content. In their study of misinformation and its correction, Allcott and Gentzkow (2017) examined the circulation and potential influence of fake news during the 2016 United States presidential election, contributing to broader debates about misinformation in electoral settings. Although findings from the United States cannot automatically be generalised to Nigeria, the study illustrates why false political content and its potential influence on voters deserve empirical attention. UNESCO (2018) similarly emphasises the importance of verification skills and media and information literacy in addressing information disorder. In Nigeria, where social media is used for political discussion and election-related communication, fact-checking may help users assess claims about candidates, political parties, government performance, and electoral events. However, its practical contribution depends on whether corrections reach the affected audiences and are accepted as credible.

Nigeria provides an important context for investigating the relationship between political misinformation and fact-checking because political communication takes place in a diverse media environment involving traditional news outlets, digital platforms, political networks, and interpersonal communication. Political messages may be shared across online communities and social networks, where users sometimes forward information without checking the original source or supporting evidence. Research by Apuke and Omar (2021) examined the motivations associated with sharing fake news during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria, showing the relevance of users’ sharing behaviour to the wider problem of false information circulation. Although their research focused on health-related misinformation rather than political claims, it provides useful Nigerian evidence that misinformation-sharing behaviour deserves investigation in its local social and communication context. More directly, a study by Olanrewaju and colleagues would need to be identified and verified before being used to support specific claims about political fact-checking in Nigeria; it would be inappropriate to assume that findings from international research fully describe Nigerian users’ behaviour. Wardle and Derakhshan (2017) and UNESCO (2018) provide conceptual and practical frameworks for examining information disorder and verification, but empirical research is still needed to understand how selected social media users in Abuja encounter and respond to political fact-checking. Such an investigation can consider users’ awareness of fact-checking services, their verification habits, their perceptions of credibility, and the extent to which fact-checking influences their willingness to believe or share political claims.

Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), is a relevant setting for the study because it is the seat of Nigeria’s federal government and an important centre of political institutions, public administration, media activity, civil society engagement, and national political discussion. Social media users in Abuja may encounter political messages concerning federal policies, political officeholders, political parties, elections, and public affairs at both national and local levels. Nevertheless, the population is diverse, and users may differ in age, education, occupation, political interest, social media platform preference, and trust in news and verification sources. These differences may affect their exposure to political misinformation and their willingness to consult fact-checking reports. The findings of Walter et al. (2020) suggest that fact-checking can improve political beliefs on average, while also indicating that its effects should not be presumed identical across audiences. Similarly, UNESCO (2018) highlights the importance of verification skills and media literacy in responding to misleading information. Against this background, the present study seeks to examine the role of fact-checking in combating political misinformation among selected social media users in Abuja, FCT. Specifically, it will investigate users’ awareness and use of fact-checking, the relationship between fact-checking exposure and their ability to identify misleading political claims, and the perceived challenges that may limit the effectiveness of verification efforts.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The increasing use of social media for political communication has created opportunities for citizens to access information about elections, public policies, political parties, and government activities. However, the rapid circulation of political messages also makes it possible for inaccurate claims to reach large audiences before their authenticity is established. Such claims may misrepresent political events, attribute statements to individuals who did not make them, distort public policy information, or present misleading material as factual reporting. Wardle and Derakhshan (2017) explain that misinformation and disinformation form part of a wider information disorder that can affect the quality of public communication. Allcott and Gentzkow (2017) also demonstrate the importance of examining the circulation of false political content within an electoral environment. The problem is that social media users may encounter political claims repeatedly without knowing whether they are accurate, potentially making it more difficult for them to distinguish credible information from misleading content.

Fact-checking is widely recognised as one approach to identifying and correcting false or misleading claims, but the availability of corrections does not automatically guarantee that social media users will see, trust, or accept them. Users may encounter a false political claim in a group chat or on a social media page but never see the corresponding fact-check. Others may distrust the organisation publishing the correction, interpret it through existing political loyalties, or continue to believe the original claim despite the evidence presented. Nyhan and Reifler (2010) examined the challenges associated with correcting political misinformation, while Walter et al. (2020) found that fact-checking generally has beneficial effects on political beliefs, although the magnitude of those effects varies. These findings raise questions about the practical effectiveness of fact-checking among different groups of social media users. It is therefore necessary to examine whether users in the study area are aware of fact-checking initiatives, how they respond to corrections, and whether their exposure to verification information is associated with a greater ability to recognise misleading political claims.

Another problem concerns the behaviour of social media users when they receive or encounter political information. Some users may verify a claim before sharing it, while others may forward messages because they come from friends, relatives, political groups, or accounts they already trust. Emotional reactions, partisan preferences, the apparent urgency of a message, and the convenience of sharing content may influence these decisions. Apuke and Omar (2021), in their study of fake-news sharing during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria, examined factors associated with the sharing of false information in a Nigerian social media context. Although their study focused on health-related misinformation, it highlights the importance of investigating users’ motivations and sharing behaviour rather than treating misinformation circulation solely as a problem of content production. The extent to which political social media users consult fact-checking reports, verify the sources of claims, or refrain from sharing unverified political content remains an important issue for investigation in the present study.

In Abuja, FCT, political discussion takes place among diverse social media users who may differ in their levels of political interest, digital literacy, trust in news organisations, and awareness of fact-checking services. Although international research and general guidance provide evidence that fact-checking and verification skills can help address misinformation, these findings do not establish how selected social media users in Abuja encounter and respond to political corrections. UNESCO (2018) emphasises fact-checking, source verification, and media and information literacy as important responses to information disorder, while Walter et al. (2020) show that the effectiveness of fact-checking can vary across circumstances. The specific problem addressed by this study is the need for local empirical evidence on the role of fact-checking in combating political misinformation among selected social media users in Abuja, FCT. The study will investigate awareness and use of fact-checking, its relationship with users’ ability to identify misleading political information, and the challenges that may affect their reliance on verification. It will not assume that fact-checking eliminates misinformation or that an observed relationship necessarily proves causation.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the role of fact-checking in combating political misinformation on social media among selected social media users in Abuja, FCT.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Determine the level of awareness of fact-checking practices and services among selected social media users in Abuja, FCT.

2. Examine the extent to which selected social media users consult fact-checking information before believing or sharing political claims.

3. Assess the relationship between exposure to fact-checking and users’ ability to identify misleading political information on social media.

4. Identify the major challenges affecting the use and perceived effectiveness of fact-checking in combating political misinformation among selected social media users in Abuja, FCT.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What is the level of awareness of fact-checking practices and services among selected social media users in Abuja, FCT?

2. To what extent do selected social media users consult fact-checking information before believing or sharing political claims?

3. What relationship exists between exposure to fact-checking and users’ ability to identify misleading political information on social media?

4. What are the major challenges affecting the use and perceived effectiveness of fact-checking in combating political misinformation among selected social media users in Abuja, FCT?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no statistically significant relationship between exposure to fact-checking and the ability of selected social media users in Abuja, FCT, to identify misleading political information.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study are expected to be useful to social media users, journalists, fact-checking organisations, government institutions, policymakers, civil society organisations, and researchers.

Social media users: The study may help users appreciate the importance of verifying political claims before believing or sharing them. It may encourage them to examine the original source of a message, compare claims with credible evidence, and consult reliable fact-checking reports when political information appears doubtful. The findings may also increase awareness of how misinformation can circulate through personal contacts and online communities.

Journalists and media organisations: The study may provide insights into how audiences encounter and respond to political fact-checking. Journalists and editors may use the findings to improve the presentation of corrections, explain verification procedures more clearly, and distribute fact-checking reports through platforms commonly used by their audiences.

Fact-checking organisations: Organisations that investigate political claims may benefit from evidence about users’ awareness, verification habits, trust, and perceived barriers to using fact-checking services. These insights may assist them in developing more accessible reports, communicating evidence transparently, and reaching audiences who may otherwise be exposed to misleading political information.

Government institutions and policymakers: The findings may contribute to discussions about responsible political communication, public information, and the promotion of informed civic participation. They may also help policymakers understand the potential value of media and information literacy programmes without treating fact-checking as a substitute for independent journalism, transparent governance, or broader efforts to improve the information environment.

Civil society organisations: Civic education groups, election-monitoring organisations, and non-governmental organisations may use the findings to design programmes that teach citizens how to evaluate political claims, identify unreliable sources, and make more informed decisions about sharing political information.

Researchers and students: The study may contribute to the literature on political communication, digital media, misinformation, and fact-checking in Nigeria. It may provide a basis for further studies involving different demographic groups, political contexts, social media platforms, or election periods.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the role of fact-checking in combating political misinformation on social media among selected social media users in Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria.

In terms of content, the study will examine users’ awareness of fact-checking services and practices, their use of fact-checking information before believing or sharing political claims, the relationship between exposure to fact-checking and their ability to identify misleading political content, and the challenges affecting their use of verification resources.

The geographical scope is Abuja, FCT. The study population will comprise selected social media users who meet the research’s inclusion criteria. The age range, sampling locations, sample size, and eligible platforms should be specified in the methodology chapter. Data may be collected through a structured questionnaire, with descriptive statistics used to summarise respondents’ answers and an appropriate inferential test used to assess the research hypothesis. The particular statistical test will depend on how exposure to fact-checking and the ability to identify misleading political information are measured.

The study is concerned with users’ experiences and assessments of fact-checking rather than a comprehensive audit of all political misinformation circulating in Abuja. If the study uses a cross-sectional survey, its results will establish associations rather than conclusively demonstrate that fact-checking causes a change in users’ ability to recognise misinformation.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study may encounter limitations that should be considered when interpreting its findings.

Recall limitations: Respondents may not accurately remember how often they encountered fact-checking reports or whether they verified particular political claims before sharing them. Clear questions and a defined recall period may help reduce this problem.

Self-reporting bias: Some respondents may report verification practices they do not consistently follow, particularly if they believe fact-checking is socially desirable. Where feasible, the questionnaire should distinguish between actual reported practices and general attitudes towards fact-checking.

Variation in political interests: Respondents may differ in political knowledge, party preferences, levels of political engagement, education, and trust in media organisations. These differences may affect both their exposure to misinformation and their responses to fact-checking.

Limited geographical coverage: The study will focus on selected social media users in Abuja, FCT. Its findings may not represent all residents of Abuja or social media users across Nigeria.

Changing social media environment: Political misinformation and verification practices may change over time as new claims, platforms, and verification initiatives emerge. The findings will therefore reflect the period in which the data are collected.

Limitations of research design: If data are collected through a cross-sectional questionnaire, it may be difficult to determine whether fact-checking improves users’ ability to identify misinformation or whether people who are already more sceptical and media-literate are more likely to consult fact-checks. The study should acknowledge this limitation and avoid unsupported causal conclusions.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Fact-checking: The systematic examination of factual claims using credible evidence, original sources, relevant documentation, and other appropriate verification methods to assess their accuracy.

Political misinformation: False, inaccurate, or misleading information about political actors, parties, elections, public policies, government activities, or political events that circulates without necessarily being deliberately created to deceive.

Disinformation: False or misleading information that is deliberately created or disseminated to deceive or manipulate an audience.

Social media: Digital platforms and applications that enable users to publish, share, receive, and discuss information and other content.

Social media users: Individuals who access or participate in social media platforms and who meet the study’s eligibility criteria.

Political claims: Statements or assertions concerning political leaders, parties, elections, government policies, public institutions, or political events that can be examined against available evidence.

Exposure to fact-checking: The extent to which a user encounters fact-checking reports, corrections, verification labels, or other content assessing the accuracy of political claims.

Awareness of fact-checking: A user’s knowledge of fact-checking practices, verification methods, and available fact-checking services.

Verification behaviour: Actions taken to assess the reliability of political information, such as checking the original source, consulting independent news reports, examining supporting evidence, or searching for a fact-check before sharing a claim.

Credibility: The degree to which a user perceives a source, message, or fact-checking organisation as trustworthy and reliable.

Combating political misinformation: Efforts to identify, correct, limit, or prevent the circulation and acceptance of misleading political information through verification, corrections, media literacy, and responsible sharing practices.

Abuja, FCT: The Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, which serves as the geographical setting for the study.

Project – The Role of Fact-Checking in Combating Political Misinformation on Social Media: A Study of Selected Social Media Users in Abuja, FCT.