Project – Informal Urban Expansion and the Transformation of Peri-Urban Agricultural Land: Implications for Sustainable City Planning

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Urbanisation is one of the most significant spatial and demographic transformations taking place across the world. The movement of population, economic activities, infrastructure and investment towards urban areas has transformed the physical structure of cities and their surrounding territories. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs reported that about 55% of the world’s population lived in urban areas in 2018 and projected that this proportion would rise to 68% by 2050. The projected increase in the world’s urban population is expected to be concentrated substantially in Asia and Africa, making the management of urban expansion particularly important for developing countries such as Nigeria (United Nations, 2018).

Urbanisation, however, is not restricted to the formally designated boundaries of cities. As urban populations increase and demand for housing, employment, transportation, commercial facilities, industries and social infrastructure expands, development increasingly moves towards the edges of metropolitan areas. These transitional spaces are commonly described as peri-urban areas. Peri-urban areas constitute the interface between established urban settlements and rural landscapes, and they are characterised by rapid land-use change, changing livelihoods, mixed settlement patterns, speculative land transactions, inadequate infrastructure and competing demands for land. In this sense, peri-urbanisation represents not merely physical expansion but also a transformation in the social, economic and environmental relationships between urban and rural areas.

The importance of managing this transition has been emphasised by UN-Habitat (2022), which argues that effective urban and territorial planning is critical to mitigating the negative social, economic and environmental consequences associated with future urban growth. The agency further observes that cities are strongly connected to their hinterlands and that integrating urban-rural linkages into planning is important for resilient and sustainable urban futures.

One of the major consequences of rapid peri-urban expansion is the conversion of agricultural land to residential, commercial, industrial, institutional and infrastructural uses. Agricultural land located close to expanding cities is particularly vulnerable because its proximity to roads, markets and growing populations increases its potential value for non-agricultural development. The rising value of peri-urban land can encourage landowners to sell agricultural holdings to developers, while farmers may also find it increasingly difficult to compete with real-estate investors for land. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2017) notes that urbanisation increases competition for land between agriculture and non-agricultural commercial uses, particularly around large cities. At the same time, proximity to urban markets can create opportunities for peri-urban farmers because cities generate demand for fresh and high-value agricultural products.

The relationship between urban expansion and agriculture is therefore complex. On one hand, urban growth creates markets for food and can provide farmers with access to consumers, transportation, employment and other services. On the other hand, uncontrolled or poorly planned urban expansion can permanently remove productive agricultural land from the food-production system. Once agricultural land is converted into housing estates, roads, commercial centres or industrial facilities, it becomes difficult and often impossible to restore it to its previous productive condition. The loss is therefore not merely a change in land cover; it can represent a permanent reduction in the capacity of the peri-urban region to contribute to food production and ecological sustainability.

This issue is particularly important in Lagos State, Nigeria’s principal metropolitan and economic centre. Lagos has experienced sustained population growth, economic concentration and spatial expansion, producing intense demand for land for residential, commercial, industrial, transportation and infrastructure development. The spatial growth of Lagos has increasingly extended beyond the older metropolitan core into peri-urban areas such as Ikorodu, Ibeju-Lekki and Epe. Studies of land-use change in Lagos demonstrate that urban expansion has substantially altered the landscape and created pressure on agricultural and other environmentally significant land uses (Dekolo, Oduwaye, & Nwokoro, 2015).

Dekolo et al. (2015), in their study of urban sprawl and agricultural land loss in peri-urban Lagos, found that peri-urban areas were under significant pressure from population growth, migration and urban expansion. Their analysis of Ikorodu showed substantial transformation of the landscape over four decades and highlighted the importance of understanding emerging urban forms for effective planning. They argued that peri-urban areas are particularly important because they contain agricultural resources that contribute to urban survival.

The Lagos experience demonstrates the difficulty of balancing the need for additional urban land with the need to protect agricultural and ecological resources. As the metropolitan area expands, land that was previously used for farming, wetlands, forests, open spaces and other rural activities is increasingly incorporated into the urban land market. Such transformation can occur through formal planning and approved development, but it can also occur through informal subdivision, speculative transactions, unapproved construction and gradual encroachment. The coexistence of formal and informal development processes makes peri-urban planning particularly difficult.

The Lekki–Epe corridor provides an especially important case for studying this phenomenon. The corridor has become one of the most dynamic areas of spatial transformation in Lagos State. The Lekki peninsula and adjoining areas towards Ibeju-Lekki and Epe have experienced substantial residential, commercial, industrial, tourism and infrastructure development. A recent analysis of urban expansion in the Lekki region describes it as one of the most dynamic growth areas in Lagos, with major residential developments, gated estates, agricultural lands and large-scale infrastructure projects occurring within the corridor. The development of the Lekki–Epe Expressway has also significantly improved accessibility and increased the development potential of areas along the corridor (Murray & Nwachukwu, 2022).

Improved transportation infrastructure is an important driver of peri-urban expansion. Roads reduce travel time and increase accessibility to previously remote areas, thereby raising land values and stimulating residential and commercial development. The Lekki–Epe Expressway has consequently functioned not only as a transportation route but also as a spatial development corridor. Settlements that were previously rural or semi-rural have increasingly become integrated into the expanding metropolitan economy.

Research by Adedire and Adegbile (2018) provides empirical evidence of this transformation in Ibeju-Lekki. Their study found that peripheral settlements in Ibeju-Lekki experienced substantial spatial and demographic transformation, with residential expansion being particularly prominent. The researchers identified the housing deficit in metropolitan Lagos and improved transportation linkages as important factors contributing to spatial expansion. They recommended changes in the classification and planning of peri-urban settlements to accommodate changing land-use patterns and support sustainable development.

Similarly, Adedire and Adegbile’s research on peri-urbanisation in Ibeju-Lekki established that spatial expansion directly encroached into areas originally associated with agricultural land use. The researchers observed the emergence of linear, clustered, leapfrog, dispersed and mixed-use settlement patterns. Such patterns indicate that peri-urbanisation is not necessarily occurring as a compact and coordinated extension of existing urban settlements but may take place in fragmented forms that are difficult and expensive to service.

The historical transformation of Ibeju-Lekki illustrates the magnitude of this change. Research drawing on Lagos State Ministry of Lands data showed that agricultural land and residential land uses have competed significantly in the peri-urban landscape. The study reported substantial increases in residential land use in Ibeju-Lekki over successive periods, while also identifying highways, land affordability, workplace location, improved urban quality and property investment among the drivers of peri-urban expansion (Adedire, 2020).

Land affordability is particularly important in understanding the development dynamics of the Lekki–Epe corridor. As land prices rise in the established urban core, developers and households may seek relatively cheaper land in peripheral locations. This creates incentives for both formal and informal development. Landowners may subdivide agricultural holdings into residential plots, while developers may acquire large parcels for housing estates and other projects. The process can generate economic benefits for landowners and investors, but it can also reduce the availability of agricultural land and change the traditional livelihoods of communities.

The transformation of agricultural land also affects the livelihoods of rural and peri-urban households. Farming communities that have historically depended on agriculture may lose access to land as development expands. Some households may benefit from land sales and move into property investment or other urban occupations, while others may experience livelihood insecurity because agricultural production is no longer viable. Consequently, land-use conversion can produce a transition from farming-based livelihoods towards construction, petty trading, transportation, property-related activities and other urban-oriented occupations.

The spatial consequences of peri-urban expansion extend beyond agricultural land loss. Fragmented development can increase pressure on roads, drainage systems, water supply, electricity, waste management and other infrastructure. When housing and other developments occur faster than infrastructure provision, residents may experience inadequate public services. Adedire and Adegbile (2018) found that the rapid spatial and demographic transformation of Ibeju-Lekki was not adequately captured by conventional regional planning, creating difficulties in providing infrastructure in line with the pace of development.

Informal urban expansion makes these challenges more complex. Informality in peri-urban areas may involve unapproved subdivisions, construction without adequate planning permission, development outside designated land-use zones, occupation of environmentally sensitive land, inadequate setbacks and development without corresponding infrastructure. Such practices can emerge because of weak development control, limited planning capacity, high housing demand, complicated land administration systems and inadequate awareness of planning regulations.

The distinction between formal and informal expansion is nevertheless not always clear. Peri-urban landscapes frequently contain a mixture of government-approved estates, private developments, traditional settlements, informal housing, agricultural plots, commercial uses and infrastructure projects. These different forms of development can exist beside one another without adequate integration. The resulting spatial pattern may be fragmented and difficult to manage.

Recent research by Dekolo et al. (2025) reinforces the seriousness of this issue in Lagos. Their study of peri-urban sprawl found that built-up areas in Ikorodu increased substantially over a 32-year period, while agricultural and forested lands declined. Their analysis identified lack of policy awareness and weak development control as major underlying drivers of peri-urban expansion and argued for spatial planning that incorporates agroecological considerations and stronger rural-urban linkages.

Although the recent study focused on Ikorodu rather than the Lekki–Epe corridor, its findings are highly relevant because it demonstrates a wider pattern of peri-urban transformation within Lagos. It establishes that the conversion of agricultural land is not simply the consequence of population growth; it is also influenced by planning capacity, development control, land-use decisions, stakeholder behaviour and policy awareness.

The problem of land-use conversion is particularly significant for sustainable city planning. Sustainable city planning requires planners to consider the long-term interaction between land, population, infrastructure, economic activity and environmental resources. Sustainable development cannot be achieved by expanding the built environment indefinitely without considering the ecological and productive functions of land.

The concept of sustainable development, as articulated in the Brundtland Report, requires development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development [WCED], 1987). In the urban context, this principle implies that city growth must be managed in a way that balances economic development, housing needs, social inclusion and environmental protection.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 similarly calls for inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities and communities. Achieving this goal requires effective land-use planning, appropriate infrastructure, environmental management and coordinated urban governance. UN-Habitat (2022) emphasises that effective urban and territorial planning is essential for avoiding unsustainable sprawl and ensuring that future urban growth does not exert excessive pressure on open land, infrastructure and public services.

The planning challenge is therefore not whether urban expansion should occur. Urban expansion is inevitable in a rapidly growing metropolitan region. The critical question is how expansion should occur, where it should occur, what land uses should be protected, and how the transition between urban and rural areas should be managed.

This question is especially important in the Lekki–Epe corridor because the area is simultaneously experiencing large-scale infrastructure investment, residential development, commercial expansion, industrial development and continued pressure on agricultural and natural landscapes. The corridor therefore represents a classic peri-urban environment in which competing land uses converge.

The development trajectory of the Lekki axis also demonstrates how infrastructure investment can accelerate spatial transformation. Research on Lagos’ urban expansion found that improved accessibility has increased development potential along the Lekki corridor. The development of major transport infrastructure has been accompanied by extensive residential development, land reclamation and other forms of spatial transformation.

Large-scale developments may produce substantial economic benefits. They can generate employment, improve transportation, increase property values, attract investment and contribute to government revenue. Industrial and commercial developments can also stimulate demand for housing and services. Consequently, the study does not treat all land conversion as inherently undesirable. Rather, it seeks to determine whether the pace and pattern of land conversion are consistent with sustainable city planning.

A major concern is that the economic value of agricultural land is often measured primarily through its potential for real-estate development. The ecological, food-production and social functions of the land may receive less attention. FAO (2017) notes that urbanisation increases competition between agricultural and non-agricultural uses, particularly where land values rise near cities. However, peri-urban agriculture can also benefit from proximity to urban markets, particularly for perishable products.

This creates a policy dilemma for Lagos State. Protecting agricultural land is important for food security and environmental sustainability, but restricting development in high-demand areas can create pressure on housing supply and land prices. Sustainable planning must therefore avoid simplistic solutions. It must identify areas suitable for development, areas requiring agricultural protection, areas requiring ecological conservation and areas where mixed or transitional uses can be appropriately managed.

The issue is further complicated by land ownership and tenure. Peri-urban land may be held under customary, family, private or government arrangements, and these overlapping interests can create disputes and uncertainty. Land transactions may occur before formal planning decisions are made, creating speculative development and fragmented ownership patterns. Where land administration and planning systems are not sufficiently coordinated, development may proceed ahead of infrastructure and formal planning.

Another important concern is environmental sustainability. Agricultural land in the Lekki–Epe corridor is part of a wider ecological system that includes wetlands, mangrove areas, water bodies, coastal environments and other sensitive landscapes. Unplanned development can alter natural drainage patterns, reduce vegetation cover and increase surface runoff. Where wetlands and natural drainage areas are occupied, flood risks may increase. The 2024 geospatial assessment of Ibeju-Lekki’s master plan reported that inadequate planning and urban sprawl were associated with flood and erosion hazards in some communities (Ibitoye, Tata, & Akorede, 2024).

This demonstrates that land-use decisions made today can create environmental costs that become apparent only later. A residential estate may provide immediate housing and investment benefits, but if its construction alters drainage channels or occupies environmentally sensitive land, the long-term costs may include flooding, erosion, infrastructure damage and reduced environmental quality.

Sustainable planning therefore requires spatial information capable of tracking land-use change. Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become important tools for monitoring peri-urban transformation because they allow planners and researchers to identify changes in built-up areas, vegetation, agricultural land, wetlands and other land-cover categories over time. Abiodun et al. (2018) demonstrated the usefulness of integrated spatial modelling for understanding urban growth dynamics in the Lagos Metropolitan Region, using multi-temporal land-use and land-cover data to analyse and predict future urban expansion.

The availability of spatial information is particularly important in fast-changing corridors such as Lekki–Epe. Traditional planning methods that rely on periodic surveys and static maps may not adequately capture rapid changes in land use. By the time an area is formally assessed, significant portions of agricultural land may already have been subdivided or developed. Continuous spatial monitoring can therefore support early identification of development pressure and enable planning authorities to respond proactively.

Another issue is the relationship between urban expansion and food security. Lagos is a densely populated metropolitan area with substantial demand for food. Peri-urban agriculture can supply fresh vegetables, fruits, livestock products and other food items to nearby urban consumers. The loss of agricultural land therefore has implications beyond the communities where the conversion occurs. It may increase dependence on food supplied from increasingly distant areas and increase transportation costs and vulnerability to food-supply disruptions.

Research on urban and peri-urban agriculture in Lagos has shown that farmers’ decisions concerning land location are influenced by proximity to water, markets, residences and other urban resources. Adekunle, Fatoba and Akinbile (2014) found that urban farmers in Lagos make locational decisions based partly on access to water, residence and markets, demonstrating that agricultural activity remains closely connected to the urban environment.

Thus, peri-urban agriculture should not necessarily be regarded as an outdated rural activity that naturally disappears as cities grow. Rather, it can form part of a sustainable metropolitan food system. The challenge for planners is to integrate agricultural production into metropolitan land-use strategies where appropriate while directing unavoidable urban development towards suitable locations.

The concept of rural-urban linkage is particularly relevant to the Lekki–Epe corridor. Peri-urban communities are neither completely rural nor fully urban. Residents may farm while working in urban occupations; agricultural land may exist beside residential estates; rural roads may become major urban transport routes; and traditional communities may be surrounded by modern developments. Such complexity requires planning approaches that recognise the continuum between rural and urban spaces rather than treating them as completely separate categories.

UN-Habitat (2022) emphasises the importance of integrating urban-rural linkages into planning for resilient urban futures. Similarly, FAO (2017) advocates agro-territorial approaches that connect cities and surrounding rural areas, recognising that food systems, infrastructure and livelihoods operate across administrative boundaries.

The Lekki–Epe corridor therefore provides an important laboratory for examining whether existing planning practices are adequately responding to the transformation of peri-urban agricultural land. The corridor is experiencing development pressures that are simultaneously economic, demographic, infrastructural and environmental. The resulting land-use changes may create opportunities for economic development while also generating risks for agriculture, food security, environmental quality and infrastructure provision.

The importance of this study is further strengthened by the growing recognition that conventional urban planning may not adequately capture rapidly changing peri-urban landscapes. Adedire and Adegbile (2018) specifically observed that spatial and demographic changes in Ibeju-Lekki were not adequately captured by conventional regional planning.

It is against this background that the present study focuses on informal urban expansion and the transformation of peri-urban agricultural land along the Lekki–Epe corridor, Lagos State. The study is concerned with identifying the nature and extent of informal urban expansion, examining the drivers of agricultural land conversion, assessing the effects of such conversion on agricultural livelihoods and environmental sustainability, and determining the implications for sustainable city planning.

The study recognises that urban expansion is not necessarily negative. Lagos requires additional housing, employment opportunities, infrastructure and economic space. However, when development takes place without adequate spatial coordination, infrastructure planning and environmental safeguards, it can produce fragmented settlements, agricultural land loss, inadequate services and long-term environmental problems. Sustainable planning must therefore seek a balance between the legitimate demand for urban growth and the protection of land resources that are important to the long-term functioning of the metropolitan region.

The study is particularly timely because the Lekki–Epe corridor is undergoing continuing transformation. Existing research has established the rapid urbanisation of Ibeju-Lekki and the importance of transportation, land affordability, housing demand and investment in driving spatial expansion. Recent research has also identified weaknesses in development control and master-plan implementation as contributors to peri-urban sprawl.

However, there remains a need for a study that brings these issues together from the perspective of informal urban expansion, agricultural land transformation and sustainable city planning along the wider Lekki–Epe corridor. Such a study can provide useful evidence for planners, policymakers, local communities, farmers, developers and other stakeholders involved in managing Lagos’ rapidly changing urban edge.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Lagos State is experiencing continuous urban growth, and the pressure for additional land for housing, commerce, industry, transportation and infrastructure has increasingly extended towards its peri-urban areas. The Lekki–Epe corridor has emerged as one of the most important areas of this expansion. The development of major transport infrastructure, residential estates, commercial facilities and other large-scale projects has increased the attractiveness of the corridor for investors, households and businesses. While these developments provide significant economic opportunities, they have also intensified competition for land.

The fundamental problem addressed by this study is the rapid conversion of peri-urban agricultural land into built-up uses in circumstances where formal planning and development control may not always keep pace with the speed of urban expansion. This creates a tension between the need to accommodate urban growth and the need to preserve agricultural, ecological and environmental resources.

Existing studies demonstrate that the peri-urban areas of Lagos have undergone substantial spatial transformation. Dekolo et al. (2015) documented the loss of agricultural land associated with urban sprawl in peri-urban Lagos and emphasised the importance of planning for the changing urban edge. More specifically, Adedire and Adegbile (2018) found that Ibeju-Lekki experienced significant residential expansion, driven partly by metropolitan housing demand and improved transport connections.

The concern is that urban expansion can occur faster than planning institutions can effectively monitor, regulate and coordinate it. When development occurs informally or outside approved spatial frameworks, land-use patterns can become fragmented. Roads, drainage systems, water supply, electricity, waste management and other infrastructure may subsequently have to be provided to settlements that were not adequately planned for such services.

This creates an important planning problem because infrastructure provision is generally more difficult and expensive in dispersed settlements than in properly planned compact development. UN-Habitat (2022) warns that unmanaged urban expansion can place pressure on open land, infrastructure and services and can produce unsustainable sprawl.

A related problem is the loss and fragmentation of agricultural land. Agricultural activities that previously occupied substantial areas of the peri-urban landscape may gradually disappear as land is subdivided for housing estates, commercial developments and other uses. This process can reduce the physical space available for farming and increase the cost of the remaining agricultural land.

The problem is not merely the total quantity of land lost. Fragmentation can make the remaining agricultural parcels less economically viable. Farmers may find themselves surrounded by residential developments, roads and other urban activities. Access to farmland can become more difficult, while conflicts may emerge over land boundaries, drainage, waste disposal, security and environmental conditions.

The transformation of agricultural land can also threaten the livelihoods of households that depend directly or indirectly on farming. Farmers who lose land may receive compensation or proceeds from land sales, but these benefits may not provide a sustainable long-term livelihood. Once the proceeds are exhausted, former farmers may have limited access to alternative employment or productive assets. The transition from agricultural to urban livelihoods can therefore produce both opportunities and vulnerabilities.

The pressure on agricultural land is intensified by the economic attractiveness of real estate. As the Lekki–Epe corridor becomes more accessible and integrated into the metropolitan economy, land may be considered more valuable for residential or commercial purposes than for agriculture. This creates an economic incentive for landowners to sell or convert farmland. Research on Ibeju-Lekki has identified land affordability and property investment among important drivers of peri-urban expansion.

Another problem is land speculation. Anticipation of future infrastructure and rising property values can encourage investors to acquire land before development actually reaches an area. Such speculative acquisition can increase land prices, displace agricultural activities and encourage premature subdivision. Land may therefore be transformed not because there is an immediate need for development but because it is expected to become more valuable in the future.

Informal development can also undermine the effectiveness of statutory planning instruments. Where buildings and settlements develop without adequate conformity to approved plans, planning authorities may find it difficult to maintain designated agricultural zones, environmental buffers, transportation corridors and public open spaces. The result may be a gradual erosion of planning objectives through numerous individual decisions.

This is particularly significant because planning is not simply about approving individual buildings. Sustainable city planning requires coordination of land uses at neighbourhood, corridor, metropolitan and regional levels. If individual developments are considered independently without examining their cumulative effects, the overall settlement pattern may become unsustainable.

The problem is further demonstrated by the evidence from Ibeju-Lekki concerning the transformation of settlement patterns. Adedire and Adegbile (2018) identified linear, clustered, leapfrog, dispersed and mixed-use development patterns. These patterns reflect a rapidly changing landscape in which development does not necessarily follow a single coordinated urban form.

Leapfrog and dispersed development are particularly problematic because they can create isolated pockets of development separated by undeveloped or agricultural land. Over time, these pockets can expand and merge, producing fragmented urban landscapes. Such patterns can increase dependence on private transportation, extend infrastructure networks and create pressure for further conversion of intervening agricultural land.

Environmental consequences constitute another major component of the problem. The conversion of agricultural and vegetated land can reduce natural vegetation, alter drainage patterns and increase impervious surfaces. These changes can contribute to flooding, erosion, heat accumulation and other environmental problems. In Ibeju-Lekki, Ibitoye et al. (2024) found evidence of urban-sprawl-related challenges, including flood and erosion hazards, and linked them partly to inadequate planning.

The loss of agricultural land also has implications for urban food security. Lagos is a major consumer market, and peri-urban agricultural areas can supply fresh food to the metropolitan population. FAO (2017) emphasises that proximity between cities and agricultural areas can support food systems and create opportunities for small-scale producers. At the same time, urban expansion can increase competition for farmland and make agricultural production more difficult.

Thus, continued conversion of agricultural land along the Lekki–Epe corridor could weaken the rural-urban food linkage if not adequately managed. The issue is particularly important in the context of food-price pressures, population growth and increasing dependence on food transported from distant production areas.

There is also a problem of inadequate integration between land-use planning and agricultural planning. Urban planning and agricultural development are sometimes treated as separate policy areas. Yet peri-urban agricultural land exists precisely at the intersection of these systems. Without coordination between spatial planners, agricultural authorities, land administrators, environmental agencies, local communities and developers, land conversion may proceed without adequately considering its wider implications.

Another problem is the difficulty of maintaining accurate and current land-use information. Rapid development means that land-use maps can quickly become outdated. Remote sensing research in Lagos demonstrates that built-up areas and other land-cover categories can change significantly over relatively short periods. Abiodun et al. (2018) therefore emphasised the importance of accurate land-use and land-cover information for sustainable urban planning in the Lagos Metropolitan Region.

Without reliable and regularly updated information, planning authorities may be unable to identify areas experiencing rapid conversion, monitor compliance with land-use plans or anticipate infrastructure requirements. This can result in a reactive rather than proactive planning system.

The problem is also institutional. Recent evidence from peri-urban Lagos indicates that weak development control and inadequate policy awareness can contribute significantly to uncontrolled expansion. Dekolo et al. (2025) found that lack of policy awareness and weak development control were major drivers of peri-urban expansion in their study of statutory agricultural land in Ikorodu.

Although this evidence comes from Ikorodu, it raises important questions about the effectiveness of development control in other rapidly urbanising corridors of Lagos State, including Lekki–Epe. The present study therefore seeks to determine whether similar problems are evident along the study corridor and how they affect agricultural land.

The problem is not simply that planning regulations may be violated. There may also be limitations associated with the capacity of planning institutions to enforce regulations effectively. Where urban growth is rapid, planning authorities require sufficient personnel, spatial data, legal authority, monitoring systems and institutional coordination. Weakness in any of these areas can reduce the effectiveness of development control.

Furthermore, local communities may have limited participation in decisions concerning the conversion of their land. Traditional landowners, farmers and residents may have different interests from developers and government institutions. If communities are excluded from planning processes, development may generate conflict or fail to reflect local livelihood needs.

The changing economic value of land can also produce social inequality. Wealthier developers and investors may benefit from rising land values, while low-income households may find themselves unable to afford housing in the areas where they traditionally lived. Agricultural households may also lose productive assets as land is converted. Sustainable city planning therefore needs to address not only environmental sustainability but also social and economic sustainability.

Another problem concerns the long-term consequences of short-term land transactions. A landowner may benefit immediately from selling farmland, while the wider community may experience long-term costs associated with reduced agricultural production, infrastructure demand and environmental degradation. This difference between private short-term benefits and collective long-term costs is a major challenge for sustainable land-use management.

The Lekki–Epe corridor also illustrates the tension between planned development and informal expansion. Large-scale master-planned estates and infrastructure projects can coexist with unplanned settlements and traditional communities. While master-planned developments may have internal infrastructure and defined land-use arrangements, surrounding settlements may lack comparable planning and service provision. Such differences can create fragmented urban development and unequal access to infrastructure.

The existence of planning documents alone does not guarantee sustainable development. Ibitoye et al. (2024) found that despite the existence of an Ibeju-Lekki master plan, subsequent urban development demonstrated deviations and spatial changes that raised concerns about urban sprawl and environmental hazards. This suggests that the implementation, monitoring and enforcement of planning instruments are as important as their preparation.

There is therefore a significant research problem concerning the extent to which current planning practices are capable of managing the transformation of peri-urban agricultural land along the Lekki–Epe corridor. While previous studies have examined peri-urbanisation in Ibeju-Lekki and other parts of Lagos, there is a need for a focused investigation of the relationship between informal urban expansion, agricultural land transformation and sustainable planning outcomes along the corridor.

Existing studies have established several important aspects of the problem. Adedire and Adegbile (2018) demonstrated the rapid spatial transformation of Ibeju-Lekki; Adedire (2020) identified land affordability, property investment and accessibility among the drivers of peri-urban expansion; Dekolo et al. (2015) demonstrated the relationship between urban sprawl and agricultural land loss in peri-urban Lagos; while recent research has highlighted development-control weaknesses and agricultural land loss in Lagos peri-urban areas.

However, these studies do not fully answer the specific question of how informal urban expansion along the Lekki–Epe corridor is transforming peri-urban agricultural land and what this transformation means for sustainable city planning. This constitutes an important empirical and planning gap.

The problem can therefore be summarised as follows: the rapid and sometimes informal expansion of urban development along the Lekki–Epe corridor is increasing pressure on peri-urban agricultural land, while planning, development control, infrastructure provision and environmental management may not be progressing at the same pace. If the trend continues without effective intervention, the corridor may experience further agricultural land loss, livelihood transformation, fragmented settlement patterns, infrastructure deficits, environmental degradation and increased difficulty in implementing sustainable urban development.

It is consequently necessary to investigate the extent and nature of informal urban expansion, identify the factors responsible for agricultural land conversion, examine the consequences for agricultural livelihoods and environmental sustainability, and evaluate the implications for sustainable city planning. The findings of such a study can provide evidence for improving land-use management, development control, agricultural-land protection, community participation and integrated planning along the Lekki–Epe corridor.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to examine informal urban expansion and the transformation of peri-urban agricultural land and assess its implications for sustainable city planning along the Lekki–Epe corridor, Lagos State.

1.3.1 Specific Objectives

The study seeks to:

1. examine the nature and pattern of informal urban expansion along the Lekki–Epe corridor;
2. assess the extent to which peri-urban agricultural land has been transformed into residential, commercial, industrial and other urban land uses;
3. identify the major demographic, economic, infrastructural, institutional and land-market factors driving the conversion of agricultural land;
4. examine the effects of agricultural land conversion on farming activities and the livelihoods of peri-urban communities

1.4 Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

1. What are the major patterns and characteristics of informal urban expansion along the Lekki–Epe corridor?
2. To what extent has peri-urban agricultural land been transformed into residential, commercial, industrial and other urban uses?
3. What demographic, economic, infrastructural, institutional and land-market factors drive the conversion of agricultural land along the corridor?
4. What effects does agricultural land conversion have on farming activities and the livelihoods of peri-urban communities?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between informal urban expansion and the transformation of peri-urban agricultural land along the Lekki–Epe corridor, Lagos State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will be significant to Lagos State planning authorities because it will provide empirical information on the spatial and socio-economic consequences of urban expansion along one of the state’s most rapidly transforming development corridors. The findings may assist planning authorities in improving development-control mechanisms and land-use monitoring.

The study will be useful to urban and regional planners by providing evidence on the interaction between urban expansion and agricultural land. It will demonstrate the importance of integrating agricultural land protection into peri-urban and metropolitan planning rather than treating agricultural areas as temporary spaces awaiting development.

The study will also benefit Lagos State agricultural and environmental agencies. Information concerning agricultural land conversion, farming livelihoods and environmental consequences can support policies aimed at preserving productive land and maintaining ecological functions in the peri-urban environment.

Local communities and farmers will benefit from the study because it will document the consequences of changing land-use patterns for agricultural activities, livelihoods and community environments. The findings may contribute to greater recognition of the needs of farming households within urban development policies.

The study will be valuable to property developers and investors because it will highlight the importance of development that complies with planning regulations and considers infrastructure and environmental consequences. Sustainable development requires developers to understand that individual projects can contribute to cumulative spatial and environmental impacts.

The study will also benefit infrastructure planners and service providers. Evidence concerning patterns of informal expansion can assist in anticipating areas where demand for roads, drainage, water, electricity, waste management and other services is increasing.

For policy-makers, the research will provide evidence for developing policies that balance housing and infrastructure needs with agricultural-land conservation, environmental protection and sustainable urban growth.

The study will contribute to academic literature on peri-urbanisation, urban sprawl, land-use change, agricultural land conversion and sustainable city planning in Nigeria. It will provide a focused case study of the Lekki–Epe corridor, thereby complementing existing studies of Ikorodu and Ibeju-Lekki.

Finally, the study will serve as a useful reference for future researchers interested in urban expansion, peri-urban agriculture, land-use planning, spatial development, environmental sustainability and metropolitan governance in Lagos and other rapidly urbanising Nigerian cities.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on informal urban expansion and the transformation of peri-urban agricultural land along the Lekki–Epe corridor in Lagos State.

Geographical Scope

The geographical scope covers selected peri-urban communities located along the Lekki–Epe development corridor, particularly areas experiencing significant transition from agricultural or semi-rural land uses to residential, commercial, industrial and mixed urban uses.

The specific communities selected for detailed field investigation will be determined during the methodology stage based on evidence of substantial land-use transformation, accessibility and relevance to the research objectives.

Content Scope

The study covers:

• informal urban expansion;
• peri-urbanisation;
• agricultural land conversion;
• residential development;
• commercial and industrial expansion;
• land speculation;
• land affordability;
• infrastructure development;
• transportation accessibility;
• population growth;
• development control;
• planning regulations;
• agricultural livelihoods;
• environmental impacts;
• flooding and drainage;
• land-use planning;
• rural-urban linkages; and
• sustainable city planning.

The study will consider both the physical/spatial and socio-economic dimensions of peri-urban transformation.

1.8 Delimitation of the Study

The study is delimited to the Lekki–Epe corridor of Lagos State and does not attempt to examine all peri-urban areas of Lagos State.

Although Ikorodu, Badagry and other parts of Lagos also experience significant peri-urban transformation, they are excluded from the primary field study because the research is specifically focused on the Lekki–Epe corridor.

The study does not regard every form of urban development as informal or unsustainable. Rather, it specifically examines expansion occurring through processes that may be inadequately planned, weakly controlled, fragmented or inconsistent with established land-use planning frameworks.

The study also does not examine agricultural productivity in all parts of Lagos State. Its agricultural component is restricted to peri-urban agricultural land affected by or vulnerable to urban expansion within the selected study communities.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Agricultural Land

Land used or potentially suitable for crop production, livestock production, horticulture and other agricultural activities.

Informal Urban Expansion

The outward growth of built-up areas through development processes that occur outside, ahead of, or with limited conformity to formal planning, land-use and development-control frameworks.

Urban Expansion

The outward spatial growth of an urban area through the conversion of previously undeveloped, agricultural, rural or semi-rural land to urban uses.

Urban Sprawl

Low-density, fragmented, dispersed or poorly coordinated urban expansion extending beyond the established urban area.

Peri-Urban Area

A transitional zone between established urban and rural areas characterised by mixed land uses, changing livelihoods, rapid development and interaction between urban and rural activities.

Peri-Urbanisation

The process through which rural or semi-rural areas surrounding an established city become increasingly influenced and transformed by urban population, economic activities, infrastructure and land-use demands.

Land-Use Change

The alteration of the functional use of a parcel or area of land from one use, such as agriculture, to another use, such as residential, commercial, industrial or institutional development.

Land Conversion

The process by which land previously devoted to one purpose, particularly agriculture, is changed permanently or semi-permanently to another use.

Land Fragmentation

The division of larger continuous land holdings into smaller and often disconnected parcels, which may reduce the efficiency and viability of agricultural activities.

Land Speculation

The acquisition or holding of land primarily in anticipation of future increases in its value rather than for immediate productive use.

Development Control

The administrative and regulatory processes used by planning authorities to regulate the location, design, density, intensity and use of development.

Sustainable City Planning

The process of guiding urban development in ways that balance economic development, social well-being, environmental protection, efficient land use, infrastructure provision and the needs of future generations.

Peri-Urban Agricultural Land

Agricultural land located within or around the transitional zone between established urban settlements and rural areas.

Agricultural Land Loss

The reduction in the quantity or availability of land used for agricultural production as a result of urbanisation, infrastructure, commercial development or other competing land uses.

Rural-Urban Linkages

The economic, social, environmental, infrastructural and institutional relationships connecting rural and urban areas.

Land-Use Planning

The systematic allocation and regulation of land for different purposes based on environmental, economic, social, infrastructural and spatial considerations.

Sustainable Development

Development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).

Lekki–Epe Corridor

The major development axis extending from the Lekki area towards Epe in Lagos State and encompassing rapidly changing settlements and land uses along and around the principal transportation corridor.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

The study will be organised into five chapters.

Chapter One presents the introduction, including the background to the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, research hypothesis, significance, scope, delimitation and operational definitions.

Chapter Two will review relevant literature on urbanisation, peri-urbanisation, urban sprawl, informal urban development, agricultural land conversion, land-use change, sustainable city planning and rural-urban linkages. It will also examine relevant theoretical perspectives and empirical studies.

Chapter Three will present the methodology of the study. It will discuss the research design, study area, population, sample size, sampling procedure, research instruments, validity, reliability, data collection procedures and methods of data analysis. Where spatial data are employed, the chapter will also explain the procedures for land-use and land-cover analysis.

Chapter Four will present and analyse the data obtained from the field study. It will include descriptive and inferential analyses, presentation of land-use findings where applicable, and testing of the research hypothesis.

Chapter Five will provide the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations. It will also highlight the implications of the findings for sustainable city planning and identify areas for further research.

Project – Informal Urban Expansion and the Transformation of Peri-Urban Agricultural Land: Implications for Sustainable City Planning