Project – Climate-Smart Farming Practices and the Resilience of Smallholder Vegetable Farmers to Weather Variability: A Study of Farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Agriculture is one of the sectors most directly exposed to changes in weather and climate because agricultural production depends heavily on rainfall, temperature, soil moisture, water availability and other environmental conditions. Smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable because they often operate with limited financial resources, small farm holdings, inadequate irrigation facilities, weak access to agricultural technologies and limited capacity to absorb production shocks. Consequently, changes in the timing, intensity and distribution of rainfall, together with increasing temperature and extreme weather events, can affect farm productivity, income and livelihood security (IPCC, 2022). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has established that climate change and increasing weather extremes are already affecting food production and disproportionately affecting vulnerable small-scale producers.

Weather variability refers to fluctuations in weather conditions over relatively short periods, including changes in rainfall amount, rainfall timing, temperature, dry spells, excessive rainfall, flooding and other weather-related conditions. Unlike long-term climate change, weather variability can be experienced within a farming season and can directly influence farmers’ decisions concerning planting, irrigation, fertilization, pest management and harvesting. For smallholder farmers who often depend on seasonal rainfall, unexpected weather variability can create considerable production uncertainty (IPCC, 2022).

The vulnerability of agriculture to weather variability is particularly important in developing countries where many farming households depend on agriculture for food and income. Smallholder farmers frequently lack adequate insurance, irrigation infrastructure, storage systems, credit and other mechanisms for managing production risks. When adverse weather conditions occur, farmers may therefore experience crop failure, reduced yields, increased production costs and loss of income. The consequences may extend beyond the farm to household food security, education, health expenditure and general livelihood welfare (IPCC, 2022).

Vegetable production is especially sensitive to weather variability because many vegetables have relatively short growing cycles and require adequate moisture and suitable temperature conditions for successful production. Excessive rainfall may cause waterlogging, nutrient leaching, erosion and disease outbreaks, while inadequate rainfall may result in moisture stress and reduced crop development. High temperatures can also affect flowering, fruit formation, pest populations and crop quality. These characteristics make vegetable farmers particularly dependent on their ability to manage weather-related risks through appropriate production practices (FAO, 2017).

Vegetables nevertheless constitute an important component of food systems because they provide essential vitamins, minerals and other nutrients while also generating cash income for farming households. Smallholder vegetable production can provide relatively frequent income because some vegetables mature and are harvested within short periods. This makes vegetable farming attractive to farmers operating close to urban markets. However, the same perishability and environmental sensitivity that create commercial opportunities also increase the vulnerability of vegetable farmers to weather-related disruptions (FAO, 2017).

Nigeria’s agricultural sector is highly exposed to climate-related risks because a considerable proportion of agricultural production depends on rainfall. Changes in rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, droughts, floods and other climatic stresses have implications for agricultural productivity and food security. For smallholder farmers, adaptation is therefore becoming an increasingly important component of agricultural management rather than an optional activity (Fawole & Aderinoye-Abdulwahab, 2021). Research on Nigerian farmers indicates that climate-smart practices can help farmers respond to climate-related challenges while supporting productivity and sustainability.

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) emerged as an approach for addressing the interconnected challenges of agricultural productivity, climate adaptation and greenhouse-gas mitigation. FAO’s Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook identifies CSA as an approach aimed at sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, adapting and building resilience to climate change, and reducing or removing greenhouse-gas emissions where possible (FAO, 2017). Thus, climate-smart farming does not refer to one particular technology; rather, it encompasses a range of practices selected according to farmers’ production environments, resources and climate risks.

The first major objective of climate-smart agriculture is to sustainably increase productivity and incomes. This dimension is important because farmers are unlikely to sustain practices that improve environmental resilience but substantially undermine their livelihood. Climate-smart farming therefore seeks to combine productivity with efficient management of soil, water, crops and other resources. Practices such as improved crop varieties, efficient water management, integrated soil fertility management, crop diversification and improved planting decisions may contribute simultaneously to productivity and resilience (FAO, 2017).

The second objective is adaptation and resilience. Resilience refers broadly to the capacity of farmers and farming systems to anticipate, withstand, respond to and recover from shocks while maintaining essential functions. In agriculture, resilience may be reflected in a farmer’s ability to maintain production despite irregular rainfall, excessive heat, flooding, dry spells or pest outbreaks. Climate-smart practices can strengthen this capacity by reducing farmers’ dependence on a single production strategy and improving their ability to manage environmental uncertainty (FAO, 2017; IPCC, 2022).

The third objective of climate-smart agriculture concerns mitigation, particularly reducing agricultural greenhouse-gas emissions or increasing carbon storage where feasible. Although individual smallholder farmers may have limited capacity to influence global emissions, practices such as improved soil management, agroforestry, efficient fertilizer use and reduced tillage may contribute to environmental sustainability while also providing adaptation benefits (FAO, 2017).

Climate-smart farming practices applicable to smallholder vegetable production may include irrigation, mulching, organic manure application, conservation tillage, crop diversification, intercropping, use of improved or climate-tolerant varieties, appropriate planting dates, integrated pest management, soil-water conservation and improved water-use efficiency. The suitability of a particular practice depends on the crop, local ecology, available resources, farmer knowledge and the nature of the weather risks confronting the farmer (FAO, 2017; Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

Irrigation is particularly important where rainfall is unpredictable. Access to irrigation can allow farmers to supplement rainfall during dry periods and can reduce dependence on uncertain precipitation. The IPCC identifies irrigation, on-farm water management, water storage and soil-moisture conservation among important adaptation responses in agriculture. However, irrigation must be properly managed because inappropriate water extraction or application can create other environmental problems, including groundwater depletion and soil salinization (IPCC, 2022).

Mulching is another potentially important climate-smart practice for vegetable farmers. Organic materials placed on the soil surface can reduce evaporation, conserve soil moisture, moderate soil temperature and suppress weeds. These effects can be especially valuable during periods of inadequate rainfall. However, the adoption of mulching may be constrained by labour requirements, availability of suitable materials and the opportunity cost associated with gathering and applying mulch (FAO, 2017).

Organic manure and integrated soil fertility management can also contribute to resilience. Maintaining soil organic matter can improve soil structure and water-holding capacity while supplying nutrients required for crop growth. In the long term, healthy soils can help farmers cope better with periods of moisture stress. Nigerian research has identified organic manure and other soil-management practices among the climate-smart strategies employed by farmers (Fawole & Aderinoye-Abdulwahab, 2021).

Crop diversification and intercropping represent additional strategies for reducing production risk. When farmers cultivate different crops or varieties, a weather shock that affects one crop may not necessarily destroy the entire farm output. Diversification can therefore spread risk across crops with different environmental requirements and harvesting periods. Research on climate-smart agriculture in Nigeria has identified crop diversification and intercropping among practices used by farmers to cope with climate-related challenges (Fawole & Aderinoye-Abdulwahab, 2021; Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

The use of improved and climate-tolerant crop varieties can also strengthen resilience. Varieties that mature early, tolerate drought or possess resistance to particular pests and diseases can reduce farmers’ exposure to some weather-related risks. However, the effectiveness of improved varieties depends on farmers’ access to quality seed, information, financial resources and appropriate agronomic knowledge. Recent Nigerian evidence identifies improved varieties, early-maturing varieties and resistant varieties among the climate-smart practices considered by smallholder farmers (Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

Adjustment of planting dates can constitute another important response to weather variability. Farmers traditionally rely on historical rainfall patterns to determine when to plant, but increasing variability can make traditional calendars less reliable. Changing planting dates based on improved weather information can help farmers avoid planting during periods of high rainfall risk or anticipated dry spells. Timely climate information can therefore complement physical farm technologies in strengthening resilience (Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

Access to climate information is an important enabling condition for climate-smart farming. Farmers need timely and locally relevant information about rainfall, temperature, dry spells, flooding and other weather conditions to make informed decisions. Information may be obtained from extension officers, radio, mobile phones, farmer organizations, fellow farmers and other sources. However, the value of climate information depends on its accuracy, timeliness, accessibility and farmers’ ability to interpret and apply it to farm decisions (Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

The adoption of climate-smart practices is not automatic. Farmers’ decisions are influenced by socioeconomic characteristics, access to extension services, availability of credit, farm size, education, farming experience, access to climate information, labour availability and membership in social organizations. Recent Nigerian evidence found that factors such as age, sex, education, farming experience, farm size, household size, extension access, credit access and climate-information access significantly influence the choice of multiple climate-smart practices (Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

Financial resources are particularly important because some climate-smart practices require initial investment. Irrigation equipment, improved seeds, water-storage facilities, organic inputs and other technologies may require expenditures that are difficult for resource-constrained farmers to make. The World Bank has noted that lack of training and knowledge can be a major barrier to climate-smart agriculture adoption, while Nigerian studies also identify financial and institutional constraints as important obstacles (World Bank, 2018; Oyekale et al., 2022).

Extension services can also influence the adoption and effective use of climate-smart practices. Extension personnel can help farmers understand changing weather patterns, select appropriate adaptation strategies, apply improved technologies and evaluate the outcomes of different practices. However, inadequate extension personnel, insufficient funding and weak linkages among research institutions, extension agencies and farmers can constrain climate-smart agriculture uptake in Nigeria (Oyekale et al., 2022).

The Nigerian context demonstrates that farmers are already responding to climate variability, even when they may not use the formal term “climate-smart agriculture.” Fawole and Aderinoye-Abdulwahab (2021) reported that Nigerian farmers adopted practices including conservation agriculture, organic manure, crop diversification, wetland farming, drought-tolerant crops and improved farm management. Their findings demonstrate that climate-smart farming can build on practices already familiar to farming communities while introducing improved technologies and knowledge.

Evidence from north-central and north-western Nigeria further shows that climate-smart practices are already present among smallholder farmers. A study across four Nigerian states found that 87.2 percent of farmers had adopted at least one climate-resilient crop trait, while farmers identified reduction of in-season crop losses, improved water-use efficiency and increased productivity as major climate-smart needs. The findings demonstrate that farmers recognize the connection between agricultural practices and resilience, although the extent and combination of practices vary among locations (CABI Agriculture and Bioscience study, 2023).

Recent evidence from north-western Nigeria also suggests that adoption of climate-smart agriculture can have economic and food-security implications. Saadu, Ibrahim, Nazifi and Mudashiru (2024), studying 377 farming households, reported that 82 percent of respondents were adopters of climate-smart agricultural practices and examined their effects on crop yield, income and food security. This suggests that the significance of climate-smart agriculture extends beyond environmental adaptation to household economic welfare (Saadu et al., 2024).

Lagos State provides a particularly important setting for examining climate-smart farming because agricultural activities occur alongside rapid urbanization and increasing pressure on land and other natural resources. Although Lagos is highly urbanized, agricultural production remains present in several areas, particularly in its peri-urban and rural fringes. The coexistence of agriculture and urban development creates both opportunities and vulnerabilities for smallholder farmers (Tajudeen, Omotayo, Ogundele, & Rathbun, 2022).

Research specifically examining climate change and agriculture in Lagos State has found that farmers are already experiencing climate-related effects. Tajudeen et al. (2022) analyzed weather data from 1998 to 2018 and investigated farmers in farm settlements in Badagry, Ikorodu and Epe. Their findings showed that climate conditions affect agricultural production in Lagos and that farmers have adopted different coping strategies according to the crops they cultivate.

The same study is particularly relevant to the present research because it included Odongunyon and Imota farm settlements in Ikorodu. Vegetable farmers in the study reported using irrigation and other practices in response to water availability challenges. Approximately 65 percent of respondents considered vegetables highly sensitive to water availability, and farmers reported using irrigation to cope with insufficient rainfall. Other strategies included manure application, fertilizer use, chemical application, multiple cropping and, to a lesser extent, mulching (Tajudeen et al., 2022).

The evidence from Ikorodu demonstrates that vegetable farmers are not passive recipients of climate-related shocks. Rather, they actively modify their farming practices in response to changing environmental conditions. Nevertheless, the existence of adaptation practices does not necessarily mean that farmers are sufficiently resilient. Farmers may adopt only a limited number of practices, may lack the resources required for effective implementation, or may use practices that provide short-term coping benefits without sufficiently reducing long-term vulnerability (Tajudeen et al., 2022; IPCC, 2022).

The issue of resilience is therefore central to understanding climate-smart farming. Resilience involves more than simply adopting one adaptation practice. A resilient farming household should possess the capacity to withstand weather shocks, maintain essential agricultural activities, recover from losses and adjust future practices based on experience and available information. The IPCC emphasizes that vulnerability is shaped by exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity, meaning that the same weather event can have different consequences for farmers depending on their socioeconomic and institutional circumstances (IPCC, 2022).

In Ikorodu, farmers operate within an environment characterized by both agricultural opportunities and urban pressures. The area contains important agricultural settlements but has also experienced substantial changes in land use and land cover. Recent work on the Ajegunle-Ikorodu area has identified rapid urbanization, increased flooding exposure and heat-related risks, illustrating the interaction between environmental change and human settlement patterns in the wider Ikorodu environment (University of Lagos, 2026).

Flooding is especially important for farmers in Lagos. Heavy rainfall can cause temporary or prolonged waterlogging, destroy crops, wash away soil and nutrients, damage farm infrastructure and interrupt access to markets. For vegetable farmers, whose crops often have shallow roots and short production cycles, flooding during critical growth stages can result in substantial losses. The increasing concern about flooding in the wider Ikorodu environment reinforces the importance of farm-level resilience strategies (University of Lagos, 2026).

At the same time, periods of insufficient rainfall and high temperature can produce a contrasting problem. Vegetables require adequate and relatively regular water supplies, and moisture stress can reduce growth and crop quality. Farmers may therefore face a complex situation in which excessive rainfall and flooding occur during some periods while insufficient rainfall or dry spells occur during others. This combination makes reliance on historical weather patterns increasingly risky and strengthens the need for flexible climate-smart management (Tajudeen et al., 2022; IPCC, 2022).

The importance of climate-smart practices in Lagos is also reflected in recent agricultural initiatives and research. A 2025/2026 study of climate-smart agricultural practices in Lagos State examined farmers in several farm communities and found that farmers perceived climate-smart agriculture as having beneficial effects on the resilience of farming systems, although resource and financial limitations constrained adoption. The researchers recommended stronger extension services, financial support and appropriate policy frameworks to improve climate-smart agriculture adoption (Ayejuyo et al., 2026).

Although the recent Lagos-wide study did not focus specifically on Ikorodu or vegetable farmers, it reinforces the importance of examining climate-smart practices within particular local agricultural settings. Climate risks and farmers’ responses can vary according to crop type, soil, access to water, market proximity, farm size and local infrastructure. Consequently, general findings for Lagos State cannot automatically be assumed to represent smallholder vegetable farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area (Ayejuyo et al., 2026).

There is also a need to distinguish between adoption and effective resilience. A farmer may report using irrigation, mulching or intercropping, but the practice may not be applied consistently or at a sufficient scale to protect the household from serious weather shocks. Similarly, a farmer may possess climate information but lack the financial resources to act upon it. Resilience therefore depends on the interaction between practices, resources, knowledge, institutions and environmental conditions rather than the mere presence of an adaptation technology (IPCC, 2022; World Bank, 2018).

The relationship between climate-smart farming and resilience is therefore an important area of agricultural research. If climate-smart practices effectively reduce farmers’ exposure and sensitivity to weather variability, farmers who adopt appropriate combinations of practices should theoretically be better positioned to maintain production, recover from shocks and stabilize their livelihoods. Conversely, low adoption, ineffective implementation or limited access to supporting resources may leave farmers highly vulnerable to weather-related disruptions (FAO, 2017; IPCC, 2022).

Despite increasing attention to climate-smart agriculture in Nigeria, there remains a need for more localized empirical evidence concerning smallholder vegetable farmers in Lagos. Existing research has examined farmers across Lagos State, including Ikorodu, and broader studies have assessed climate-smart agriculture in different Nigerian regions. However, relatively little research has specifically examined the relationship between climate-smart farming practices and the resilience of smallholder vegetable farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area. The present study therefore seeks to address this contextual gap.

The study is consequently premised on the argument that climate-smart farming practices may provide smallholder vegetable farmers with practical mechanisms for managing weather variability. Practices such as irrigation, mulching, organic manure application, crop diversification, improved varieties, adjustment of planting dates and water-management strategies may help farmers reduce production risks and strengthen their capacity to withstand adverse weather conditions. However, the extent to which these practices contribute to resilience among vegetable farmers in Ikorodu requires empirical investigation.

It is against this background that this study examines Climate-Smart Farming Practices and the Resilience of Smallholder Vegetable Farmers to Weather Variability: A Study of Farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State. The study seeks to generate localized evidence concerning the climate-smart practices adopted by farmers, the weather-related challenges they experience, their level of resilience and the relationship between climate-smart farming practices and resilience.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Agricultural production in Nigeria is increasingly confronted by weather and climate-related uncertainties. Irregular rainfall, excessive rainfall, flooding, dry spells and increasing temperatures can disrupt agricultural production and reduce the ability of farmers to obtain stable yields. The problem is particularly serious for smallholder farmers because their limited resources reduce their capacity to absorb production shocks or invest in sophisticated adaptation technologies (IPCC, 2022).

Smallholder vegetable farmers are particularly vulnerable because vegetable crops are highly sensitive to water availability and temperature conditions. Too little water can cause moisture stress, while excessive rainfall can cause flooding, nutrient loss, disease and physical crop damage. Consequently, vegetable farmers may experience significant fluctuations in production from one season to another when weather conditions become unpredictable (FAO, 2017).

The problem is compounded by farmers’ heavy dependence on natural environmental conditions. Where irrigation systems are inadequate, farmers may depend largely on rainfall for crop production. When rainfall begins late, stops prematurely or becomes excessively intense, farmers may have limited ability to adjust their production systems. This can lead to poor germination, crop stress, reduced yields or complete crop failure (Tajudeen et al., 2022).

Evidence from Lagos State confirms that weather variability is already affecting farming activities. Tajudeen et al. (2022), in their study involving farm settlements in Ikorodu, Epe and Badagry, found evidence of climate-related effects on agricultural production and documented farmers’ use of different coping strategies. The inclusion of Ikorodu in this research demonstrates that the problem is directly relevant to the proposed study area.

The specific problem for vegetable farmers is the high sensitivity of vegetable production to water availability. In the Lagos study, approximately 65 percent of respondents considered vegetables highly sensitive to water availability, and irrigation was identified as a coping strategy among farmers. This suggests that changes in rainfall and water availability create a significant management challenge for vegetable producers in the area (Tajudeen et al., 2022).

Farmers in Ikorodu also face the possibility of excessive rainfall and flooding. Recent research concerning the wider Ajegunle-Ikorodu environment identified increased exposure to flooding and heat-related risks associated with rapid land-use and land-cover changes. For farmers, such environmental changes can increase exposure to weather-related shocks and make agricultural production more uncertain (University of Lagos, 2026).

Despite these challenges, farmers are expected to continue producing vegetables to supply households and urban markets. This creates a difficult situation in which farmers must maintain agricultural production while simultaneously managing increasing environmental uncertainty. Without effective adaptation mechanisms, weather-related shocks may result in lower yields, increased costs, reduced income and weakened household livelihood security (IPCC, 2022).

Climate-smart agriculture offers a potential response to this problem. Practices such as irrigation, mulching, organic manure, crop diversification, improved varieties, conservation tillage and adjustment of planting dates are designed to improve agricultural productivity while increasing farmers’ capacity to cope with climate risks (FAO, 2017; Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

However, the availability of climate-smart practices does not mean that all farmers have equal access to them. Smallholder farmers may face financial constraints, limited access to credit, inadequate extension services, insufficient labour, limited technical knowledge and inadequate access to climate information. These constraints can prevent farmers from adopting practices that could potentially improve their resilience (World Bank, 2018; Oyekale et al., 2022).

There is also a problem concerning the scale and intensity of adoption. Some farmers may adopt one climate-smart practice while continuing to rely heavily on conventional practices that leave them exposed to weather variability. For example, a farmer may use improved seed but lack irrigation, or practice mulching without access to reliable climate information. The effectiveness of climate-smart farming may therefore depend on whether farmers use appropriate combinations of practices rather than adopting isolated measures (FAO, 2017; Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

Another concern is that farmers may adopt practices based on experience without adequate scientific information about changing weather patterns. Traditional knowledge remains valuable, but increasingly unpredictable weather may reduce the reliability of historical farming calendars. Without timely and location-specific climate information, farmers may make planting, irrigation and harvesting decisions that expose them to avoidable risks (Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

Extension support is another unresolved issue. Nigerian research has identified inadequate extension personnel, insufficient funding and weak farmer awareness as barriers to climate-smart agriculture uptake. Where farmers lack access to extension advice, they may be unaware of appropriate climate-smart technologies or may lack the technical knowledge needed to use them effectively (Oyekale et al., 2022).

The problem is further complicated by financial constraints. Irrigation systems, improved seeds, water-storage facilities and other climate-smart technologies often require investment. Smallholder farmers with limited access to credit may be unable to make such investments even when they understand the potential benefits. Consequently, poverty and limited access to finance can themselves become barriers to building agricultural resilience (IPCC, 2022; World Bank, 2018).

There is also uncertainty concerning the actual contribution of climate-smart practices to farmers’ resilience in the Ikorodu context. While farmers have been documented as using irrigation, manure, fertilizer, chemicals, multiple cropping and other coping strategies, evidence is still limited regarding whether the intensity and combination of these practices significantly improve their capacity to withstand and recover from weather variability (Tajudeen et al., 2022).

Furthermore, resilience is broader than simply avoiding crop loss. A resilient farmer should be able to maintain agricultural production, preserve household livelihood resources, recover after weather shocks and adjust future production decisions. A farmer who avoids crop failure in one season but becomes heavily indebted or loses the ability to farm in the next season may not necessarily be considered highly resilient. There is therefore a need to examine resilience using multiple dimensions rather than relying solely on crop yield (IPCC, 2022).

Existing Nigerian studies also reveal differences in climate-smart agriculture adoption between locations and socioeconomic groups. For example, Mbossoh and Udoh (2026) found that education, age, farm size, household size, farming experience, extension access, credit access and climate-information access influenced farmers’ choices of multiple climate-smart practices. This suggests that adoption patterns are context-specific and that findings from other regions cannot automatically be generalized to smallholder vegetable farmers in Ikorodu (Mbossoh & Udoh, 2026).

Similarly, research in north-western Nigeria has demonstrated that climate-smart agriculture can have implications for farm income, productivity and food security, but the socioeconomic and environmental circumstances of north-western farming communities differ considerably from those of Lagos. This makes it necessary to conduct location-specific studies that reflect the ecological, socioeconomic and urban pressures facing farmers in Lagos State (Saadu et al., 2024).

Recent research in Lagos has also reported that farmers perceive climate-smart agriculture as beneficial to the resilience of farming systems, while financial and resource constraints limit adoption. Although this evidence provides an important state-level indication, the study covered selected farming communities outside Ikorodu and was not specifically focused on smallholder vegetable farmers. There is therefore a need for a more focused investigation within Ikorodu Local Government Area (Ayejuyo et al., 2026).

The absence of sufficient localized evidence creates a practical problem for agricultural planning. Policymakers and extension agencies may recommend climate-smart practices without adequately understanding which practices farmers in Ikorodu currently use, why they use them, which practices they cannot adopt and how these practices affect their resilience. Interventions that do not reflect local conditions may therefore produce limited results (FAO, 2017).

Another problem is the possibility of a gap between awareness and actual implementation. A farmer may have heard about climate-smart agriculture but may not have the financial resources, labour, water supply or technical knowledge required to implement the recommended practices. Thus, measuring awareness alone is insufficient. It is important to determine actual farming practices and assess their relationship with farmers’ resilience to weather variability (World Bank, 2018).

The problem also has implications for food supply in Lagos. As a rapidly urbanizing state, Lagos has a large and growing demand for fresh vegetables. Smallholder farmers in areas such as Ikorodu contribute to meeting this demand. If weather variability increasingly reduces their productivity and livelihood stability, the consequences may extend beyond individual farmers to local food supply, vegetable prices and urban food security (Tajudeen et al., 2022; IPCC, 2022).

There is therefore a clear need to investigate the extent to which climate-smart farming practices are being adopted by smallholder vegetable farmers in Ikorodu and whether these practices are associated with greater resilience to weather variability. Such a study should not assume that every climate-smart practice produces the same outcome or that farmers possess equal capacity to implement them. Rather, it should identify the practices used, examine the constraints to adoption and determine the relationship between climate-smart farming practices and resilience.

The central problem of this study, therefore, is that smallholder vegetable farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area are exposed to increasingly uncertain weather conditions, while evidence remains insufficient regarding the extent to which their adoption of climate-smart farming practices enables them to withstand, cope with and recover from these weather-related challenges. Without such localized evidence, it is difficult to determine which interventions should receive priority in improving the resilience and sustainability of vegetable farming in the area.

It is against this problem that the present study investigates Climate-Smart Farming Practices and the Resilience of Smallholder Vegetable Farmers to Weather Variability in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between climate-smart farming practices and the resilience of smallholder vegetable farmers to weather variability in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. identify the major weather variability challenges experienced by smallholder vegetable farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area;
2. identify the major climate-smart farming practices adopted by smallholder vegetable farmers in the study area;
3. determine the extent to which smallholder vegetable farmers adopt climate-smart farming practices;
4. assess the level of resilience of smallholder vegetable farmers to weather variability in the study area.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What are the major weather variability challenges experienced by smallholder vegetable farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area?
2. What climate-smart farming practices are adopted by smallholder vegetable farmers in the study area?
3. To what extent do smallholder vegetable farmers adopt climate-smart farming practices?
4. What is the level of resilience of smallholder vegetable farmers to weather variability in the study area?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between climate-smart farming practices and the resilience of smallholder vegetable farmers to weather variability in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to smallholder vegetable farmers because it will provide information on practical strategies for managing weather variability. By identifying climate-smart practices that are associated with greater resilience, the study may help farmers make better decisions concerning irrigation, soil management, crop diversification, improved varieties, planting dates and other production practices.

The study will be useful to agricultural extension officers because it will provide evidence on the specific climate-related challenges confronting vegetable farmers in Ikorodu. Extension personnel can use the findings to develop locally relevant training programmes focusing on practices that farmers can realistically adopt.

The study will be valuable to the Lagos State Government and agricultural policymakers. Findings concerning farmers’ exposure to weather variability, adoption constraints and resilience levels can assist in designing agricultural policies that promote climate adaptation. Such policies may include support for irrigation, improved seeds, extension services, climate information, agricultural credit and farmer training.

The study will benefit agricultural development agencies and non-governmental organizations working with smallholder farmers. The findings can guide the design of programmes aimed at strengthening farmers’ adaptive capacity, particularly interventions involving low-cost climate-smart technologies and community-based agricultural support.

The study will also be useful to financial institutions and agricultural credit providers. Evidence on farmers’ adoption constraints may help financial institutions develop appropriate credit products for irrigation equipment, improved seeds, water-management facilities and other climate-smart investments.

The study will be relevant to farmer cooperatives and associations. Cooperatives can use the findings to organize collective access to inputs, irrigation facilities, climate information, extension services and other resources that individual smallholder farmers may find difficult to obtain.

The study will also contribute to food-security planning in Lagos State. Since smallholder vegetable farmers contribute to the supply of fresh vegetables to urban consumers, improving their resilience may contribute to a more stable local food supply. Strengthening agricultural resilience can therefore produce benefits beyond individual farming households.

Finally, the study will contribute to the academic literature on climate-smart agriculture, agricultural adaptation and smallholder resilience. It will provide location-specific evidence from Ikorodu Local Government Area and may serve as a reference for future researchers investigating climate-smart agriculture and climate resilience in Lagos State and other urbanizing agricultural regions of Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on climate-smart farming practices and the resilience of smallholder vegetable farmers to weather variability in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

The study will examine selected climate-smart farming practices including:

• irrigation and water management;
• mulching;
• organic manure application;
• crop diversification;
• intercropping;
• improved or climate-tolerant varieties;
• adjustment of planting dates;
• soil and water conservation;
• improved pest and disease management; and
• access and use of climate/weather information.

The study will examine weather variability in terms of farmers’ experiences of:

• irregular rainfall;
• excessive rainfall;
• flooding;
• dry spells;
• high temperatures; and
• changes in the timing of rainfall.

Farmers’ resilience will be assessed in relation to their capacity to anticipate, withstand, cope with, recover from and adjust to weather-related shocks affecting vegetable production.

The study will focus specifically on smallholder vegetable farmers and will not primarily investigate large commercial farms, livestock farmers, fish farmers or non-farming households.

1.8 Delimitation of the Study

Geographically, the study is delimited to Ikorodu Local Government Area of Lagos State and selected communities where smallholder vegetable farming is practiced.

Conceptually, the study is delimited to climate-smart farming practices as the independent variable and farmers’ resilience to weather variability as the dependent variable.

The study does not attempt to examine every dimension of climate change. Long-term greenhouse-gas emission trends, sea-level rise and global climate policy are outside the principal scope except where they provide necessary background to the study.

The study is also delimited to farm-level adaptation and resilience. Broader institutional issues will only be examined to the extent that they influence farmers’ ability to adopt climate-smart farming practices.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Climate-Smart Agriculture: An integrated approach to agricultural production that seeks to sustainably increase productivity and income, build resilience and adapt agricultural systems to climate change, and reduce greenhouse-gas emissions where possible.

Climate-Smart Farming Practices: Specific agricultural techniques and management practices used by farmers to improve productivity while reducing vulnerability to weather and climate-related risks. In this study, these include irrigation, mulching, organic manure, crop diversification, intercropping, improved varieties, soil-water conservation and adjustment of planting dates.

Weather Variability: Short-term fluctuations or changes in weather conditions such as rainfall, temperature, dry spells, excessive rainfall and flooding that affect agricultural production.

Resilience: The capacity of a farming household or agricultural system to anticipate, withstand, cope with, recover from and adjust to weather-related shocks while maintaining essential agricultural and livelihood functions.

Smallholder Farmer: A farmer operating a relatively small-scale agricultural enterprise with limited land, capital, technology and other productive resources compared with large commercial agricultural producers.

Vegetable Farmer: A farmer who cultivates vegetables primarily for household consumption, commercial sale or both.

Irrigation: The deliberate application of water to agricultural land or crops through artificial means when rainfall is inadequate or unreliable.

Mulching: The practice of covering the soil surface with organic or other materials to conserve moisture, suppress weeds and moderate soil temperature.

Organic Manure: Plant, animal or other organic materials applied to soil to improve soil fertility, structure and moisture-retention capacity.

Crop Diversification: The cultivation of different crops or crop varieties by a farmer to spread production risks and reduce dependence on a single crop.

Intercropping: The practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land.

Climate-Tolerant Variety: A crop variety possessing characteristics that enable it to perform relatively better under specific environmental stresses such as drought, heat, excessive moisture or particular pests and diseases.

Climate Information: Weather- and climate-related information used by farmers to make agricultural decisions concerning planting, irrigation, crop protection, harvesting and other farm activities.

Adaptive Capacity: The ability of farmers and farming households to adjust their agricultural practices, resources and decisions in response to actual or anticipated weather and climate-related changes.

Weather Shock: An unexpected or unusually severe weather event or condition that disrupts normal agricultural production, such as flooding, excessive rainfall, prolonged dry spells or extreme heat.

Smallholder Vegetable Farming: The production of vegetables by farmers operating relatively small farms with limited productive resources and primarily relying on household labour, local markets and small-scale agricultural technologies.

Project – Climate-Smart Farming Practices and the Resilience of Smallholder Vegetable Farmers to Weather Variability: A Study of Farmers in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.