Project – Household Water Storage Practices and the Risk of Mosquito Breeding in Urban Communities: A Study of Households in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Water is fundamental to human survival, health, sanitation and socioeconomic development. Households require water for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, cleaning and other domestic activities. In many developing urban environments, however, households do not always have access to a continuous and reliable supply of water. Consequently, families often collect and store water in containers for subsequent use. Although household water storage provides an important coping mechanism where water supply is intermittent, the manner in which water is stored and maintained can create unintended environmental health risks, including opportunities for mosquito breeding (World Health Organization [WHO], 2024).

Household water storage is particularly important in urban communities where population growth and infrastructure development may outpace the capacity of public water systems. Where piped water is irregular, unavailable or considered unreliable, households may depend on wells, boreholes, water vendors, rainwater harvesting and other alternative sources and subsequently store water in drums, buckets, tanks, basins and other receptacles. Recent research in Nigeria has confirmed that household water storage remains an important strategy for maintaining domestic water security where water supplies are unreliable (Ogunbode et al., 2026).

The public health significance of household water storage arises from the fact that many mosquito species require water during their immature stages. Mosquito eggs hatch in water, and larvae and pupae develop in aquatic environments before emerging as adult mosquitoes. Depending on the species, breeding habitats may include natural water bodies, puddles, drainage channels, discarded containers, tyres, tanks and other artificial receptacles. Consequently, water management around homes can influence the availability of mosquito breeding habitats (WHO, 2022).

Not every mosquito species uses the same type of breeding habitat. The genus Anopheles, which includes the principal vectors of malaria in Africa, generally prefers relatively clean and often sunlit water bodies such as pools, puddles, ditches and similar habitats. By contrast, Aedes mosquitoes are highly adapted to human environments and commonly breed in small artificial containers holding water around homes. This distinction is important in understanding the relationship between household water storage and mosquito breeding (WHO, 2023).

The Aedes mosquito is particularly associated with domestic and peri-domestic environments. Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus can lay eggs in relatively small quantities of standing water contained in artificial receptacles. Such receptacles include buckets, drums, tanks, discarded plastic containers, tyres, flowerpots and other objects capable of retaining water. WHO therefore recommends covering water-storage containers, emptying unnecessary containers and regularly cleaning containers as part of source reduction for container-breeding mosquitoes (WHO, 2023).

The ability of mosquitoes to exploit artificial containers makes household water management a significant component of vector control. A container that is considered harmless from a household perspective may become a breeding site when water remains undisturbed for several days. WHO notes that water standing for only a few days can potentially become a mosquito larval habitat, depending on the mosquito species and environmental conditions. Therefore, the frequency with which containers are emptied, cleaned and replenished can influence their suitability for mosquito development (WHO, 2021).

The manner in which water containers are covered is another important consideration. Open containers provide mosquitoes with direct access to the water surface for oviposition. A properly fitted cover can prevent adult mosquitoes from entering the container and laying eggs. Where a container cannot be completely covered, protective netting or other mosquito-proof barriers may reduce access to the stored water. WHO identifies covering household water containers as an important environmental measure for reducing mosquito breeding (WHO, 2016; WHO, 2023).

The size and type of storage container may also influence mosquito breeding potential. Large drums and tanks can hold water for extended periods, while smaller buckets and basins may be emptied and refilled frequently. However, even small containers can become productive breeding habitats when they retain water for sufficient periods. Recent research in Nigeria found that households commonly relied on steel and plastic drums, buckets and overhead tanks for water storage, demonstrating the diversity of storage vessels that may occur within domestic environments (Ogunbode et al., 2026).

The location of stored water is also relevant. Containers positioned inside houses may be protected from rainfall but can still provide suitable aquatic environments if left uncovered. Containers outside houses may additionally collect rainwater, thereby increasing their volume and potentially creating conditions favourable to mosquito development. WHO’s vector-control guidance emphasizes that mosquito breeding habitats can occur both inside and around human dwellings, making household and peri-domestic environmental management important components of vector control (WHO, 2023).

The duration of water storage is another important behavioural factor. Households that retain water for several days or weeks may inadvertently provide stable aquatic habitats for mosquitoes. Conversely, frequent emptying and cleaning can interrupt the mosquito life cycle. Source reduction guidance therefore emphasizes regular emptying, cleaning, covering and management of water-holding containers around homes (WHO, 2023).

Household water storage practices are often shaped by socioeconomic conditions. Wealthier households may have greater access to piped water, boreholes, storage tanks, plumbing systems and other infrastructure that facilitates safer water storage. Low-income households may have fewer options and may depend on smaller containers or water obtained from vendors and irregular sources. Thus, water-storage behaviour should not be viewed simply as a matter of individual choice because it can reflect wider inequalities in water infrastructure and household resources (WHO & UNICEF, 2024; Ogunbode et al., 2026).

Unreliable water supply can make household water storage unavoidable. When water is available only intermittently, households may collect larger quantities whenever water becomes available and retain it for future domestic use. This behaviour provides an important household adaptation to inadequate water services, but prolonged storage can increase opportunities for mosquito breeding when containers are not adequately covered or cleaned (WHO & UNICEF, 2024).

Urbanization further increases the importance of household-level water management. Rapidly expanding urban settlements can experience inadequate drainage, irregular water supply, overcrowding, poor waste management and insufficient environmental infrastructure. These conditions may increase the number of artificial water-holding habitats available to mosquitoes. WHO has emphasized that unplanned urban settlements with inadequate water, sanitation and drainage can create environmental conditions favourable to mosquito proliferation (WHO, 2024).

Poor solid-waste management can compound the problem of household water storage. Discarded plastics, cans, tyres, bottles and other materials can collect rainwater and create additional breeding sites around residential areas. Therefore, even when household water containers are appropriately managed, nearby environmental waste may provide alternative breeding habitats. Integrated vector management consequently requires attention to household water storage, waste management, drainage and broader environmental sanitation (WHO, 2024).

The relationship between water storage and mosquito breeding is particularly important because some mosquito species have adapted closely to human settlements. Aedes aegypti, for example, commonly breeds in artificial containers in and around homes and often remains close to human habitation. Its ecology means that mosquito-control interventions cannot depend exclusively on large-scale environmental interventions; household-level source reduction can also be important (WHO, 2021).

The public health consequences of container-breeding mosquitoes extend beyond malaria. Aedes mosquitoes are important vectors of diseases such as dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya and Zika virus disease. The presence of suitable household breeding habitats can therefore increase the broader risk of mosquito-borne diseases, depending on the mosquito species and pathogens circulating within a particular setting (WHO, 2023).

At the same time, household water management remains relevant to malaria control because mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles also depend on aquatic habitats for their immature stages. However, the breeding ecology of African malaria vectors differs from that of container-breeding Aedes. Research in Lagos has documented Anopheles breeding in puddles, gutters, ponds and other stagnant-water habitats, demonstrating that urban malaria-vector breeding can occur within highly modified environments (Adeogun et al., 2025).

Lagos State provides a particularly relevant environment for investigating mosquito breeding because of its large and rapidly changing urban population, extensive water demand and diverse residential environments. Previous research has documented the presence of mosquito breeding habitats across different parts of the state, including both natural and artificial environments. Such evidence suggests that urban vector ecology is influenced by a combination of environmental, climatic and human factors (Adeleke et al., 2019; Adeogun et al., 2025).

Evidence specifically from Ikorodu is particularly significant. A recent geospatial study of Aedes mosquitoes across eight Lagos State LGAs examined 2,964 potential larval habitats and found 1,348 in Ikorodu, of which 1,236 were positive for Aedes larvae or pupae. Ikorodu recorded the highest container index among the LGAs examined, at 91.7%, demonstrating a substantial burden of container-associated mosquito breeding in the area (Adeleke et al., 2025).

The same Lagos study identified discarded plastic containers and used tyres as important larval habitats. In Ikorodu, discarded plastic containers had an exceptionally high positivity level, while used tyres also constituted important breeding habitats. The study identified both Aedes albopictus and other Aedes species in Ikorodu, illustrating the importance of artificial water-holding materials within the urban environment (Adeleke et al., 2025).

Ikorodu has also been included in research on malaria-vector breeding. A study examining insecticide resistance among Anopheles gambiae populations collected mosquitoes from Majidun and Oke-Ota communities in Ikorodu LGA. The researchers identified several mosquito breeding habitats, including gutters, ponds, small stagnant pools, muddy water and runoff around houses (Awolola et al., 2023). These findings demonstrate that mosquito breeding in Ikorodu is not restricted to rural or undeveloped areas but occurs in diverse urban and peri-urban environments.

The Majidun and Oke-Ota findings are important because they demonstrate how the physical characteristics of urban communities can create multiple breeding opportunities. Ponds associated with human activities, drainage channels, runoff and stagnant pools can all contribute to mosquito production. Household water-storage practices therefore need to be considered within the broader environmental context of the community rather than examined in isolation (Awolola et al., 2023).

Research from other parts of Lagos has similarly demonstrated the significance of water-containing objects within residential environments. A study conducted in Ojo found mosquito oviposition in different types of water and containers and emphasized that household objects capable of retaining water can support mosquito breeding. The researchers recommended covering water-storage containers and improving environmental sanitation around homes as components of mosquito-control efforts (Adeleke et al., 2018).

Household knowledge is therefore an important component of mosquito-control behaviour. Residents who understand that mosquitoes can breed in domestic water containers may be more likely to cover tanks, empty stagnant water, clean containers and remove unnecessary water-holding materials. Conversely, limited knowledge may result in practices that unintentionally maintain breeding sites. However, knowledge does not always translate automatically into practice because household behaviour is also influenced by water availability, convenience, housing conditions and economic circumstances (WHO, 2024).

The frequency of container cleaning is particularly important because cleaning can remove mosquito eggs and immature stages and interrupt the development cycle. WHO recommends that domestic water-storage containers be covered, emptied and cleaned regularly as part of mosquito source reduction. Where water must be stored for long periods, regular inspection and maintenance become increasingly important (WHO, 2023).

Household water storage can also involve different levels of control. A household may possess a storage tank but keep it completely sealed, thereby reducing mosquito access. Another household may use an open drum or bucket, allowing mosquitoes to enter easily. Similarly, two households may store water for the same length of time but differ substantially in how frequently their containers are cleaned. Consequently, simply recording whether a household stores water may not adequately measure the potential mosquito-breeding risk. The study must examine the specific practices associated with storage (WHO, 2023).

The design and condition of storage containers may also matter. Containers with damaged covers, cracks, wide openings or accumulated organic matter may provide favourable conditions for mosquito oviposition and larval development. Properly sealed containers, on the other hand, can reduce mosquito access. These differences demonstrate why household water-storage practices should be examined as a combination of behaviours and physical conditions rather than as a single variable (WHO, 2021).

Seasonality is another factor that may influence household water storage and mosquito breeding. During periods of heavy rainfall, households may collect and retain rainwater while additional water-holding objects around homes become filled. Rainfall can consequently increase the number of available aquatic habitats. At the same time, intermittent water supply during dry periods may encourage households to store water for longer periods. Thus, seasonal conditions can alter both the need for household water storage and the environmental opportunities for mosquito reproduction (WHO, 2024).

The connection between water supply and vector control highlights the need for integrated public health interventions. Reliable water supply can reduce the necessity for households to maintain numerous storage containers, while proper storage can reduce mosquito breeding where storage is unavoidable. WHO has emphasized that water, sanitation, waste management and vector-control interventions should be considered together because deficiencies in one area may undermine gains in another (WHO & UNICEF, 2024).

The problem also has implications for environmental health education. Public health campaigns frequently emphasize mosquito nets and insecticide use, particularly in malaria-control programmes. While these measures remain important, household source reduction can complement them by reducing mosquito populations before adult mosquitoes emerge. WHO’s recent operational guidance on larval source management identifies container and waste management as important approaches to reducing mosquito populations (WHO, 2026).

Community participation is essential because many mosquito breeding sites are located within or immediately around private residences. Health authorities may conduct environmental sanitation campaigns, but sustained source reduction requires householders to participate in identifying, removing, covering and maintaining potential breeding sites. WHO therefore stresses community initiatives and local participation in mosquito-breeding-site reduction (WHO, 2023).

The emergence and expansion of mosquito species adapted to urban environments further increases the importance of household-level interventions. Anopheles stephensi, for example, has emerged as an important concern in Africa because it can breed in artificial water containers and thrive in urban and peri-urban environments. Although its current distribution differs from that of established malaria vectors in Nigeria, its ecology illustrates the potential importance of water-storage practices in future urban malaria-vector management (WHO, 2026).

The situation in Lagos therefore requires attention to both established mosquito populations and emerging vector threats. Research has already demonstrated high levels of Aedes larval habitat positivity in Ikorodu and the presence of Anopheles breeding habitats within the LGA. These findings indicate that the urban environment can support different mosquito genera and that household and community environmental practices deserve closer investigation (Adeleke et al., 2025; Awolola et al., 2023).

Despite the importance of household water storage, there is a need for more localized evidence regarding how households in specific urban communities store water and how these practices correspond with mosquito-breeding risk. Existing Lagos studies have provided valuable entomological evidence concerning mosquito breeding habitats, but an assessment focused specifically on household water-storage practices in selected communities of Ikorodu LGA can provide a different and complementary perspective.

The proposed study is therefore important because it links a common household necessity—water storage—with a potential environmental health consequence—mosquito breeding. The study will examine the types of water-storage containers used by households, whether containers are covered, how frequently they are cleaned and emptied, the duration of water storage, where containers are located and other household practices that may influence mosquito-breeding opportunities.

Understanding these practices is particularly important in low-resource and rapidly urbanizing settings where households cannot simply eliminate water storage because of unreliable supply. Effective interventions must recognize the practical need for stored water while promoting safer storage behaviours. Such an approach is more likely to be sustainable than interventions that simply instruct households to stop storing water (WHO & UNICEF, 2024; Ogunbode et al., 2026).

Consequently, this study seeks to examine household water-storage practices and the risk of mosquito breeding among households in selected urban communities in Ikorodu Local Government Area of Lagos State. By identifying the storage practices associated with mosquito-breeding risk, the study is expected to generate evidence that can support household environmental health education, community vector-control activities and locally appropriate mosquito-control interventions.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Mosquito-borne diseases remain important public health concerns in Nigeria, while the environmental conditions supporting mosquito breeding continue to occur in many urban communities. Although mosquito-control programmes have emphasized insecticide-treated nets, indoor residual spraying and other interventions, mosquito breeding in domestic and peri-domestic environments remains an important concern. WHO recognizes environmental source reduction, including the management of water-holding containers, as an important component of integrated vector control (WHO, 2026).

One important environmental factor is household water storage. In communities where public water supply is unreliable, households commonly store water for future use. While this practice helps households maintain access to water for domestic purposes, poorly managed storage containers can become aquatic habitats for mosquitoes. WHO specifically identifies water-storage containers as potential breeding sites for container-breeding mosquitoes when they are not adequately covered, emptied or maintained (WHO, 2023).

The problem is not simply that households store water, because water storage itself is often necessary. The concern is the manner in which water is stored. Open drums, uncovered buckets, poorly sealed tanks and other accessible containers may permit adult mosquitoes to enter and lay eggs. Where such containers remain undisturbed for several days, the conditions may become favourable for mosquito development (WHO, 2021).

Another problem is prolonged water storage. Some households may retain water for several days or weeks because they cannot predict when the next supply will be available. Long storage periods can increase the opportunity for mosquitoes to complete their aquatic development. Without regular inspection, cleaning and emptying, household containers can therefore become persistent breeding habitats (WHO & UNICEF, 2024).

Inadequate covering of water containers is another potential problem. Although properly fitted covers can prevent mosquitoes from accessing stored water, some households may use loose covers, damaged covers or no covers at all. Such practices may expose stored water to mosquito oviposition. WHO consequently recommends covering household water-storage containers as a basic source-reduction measure (WHO, 2023).

The problem may be compounded by inadequate cleaning of storage vessels. Even when water is periodically replaced, containers may not be scrubbed sufficiently to remove mosquito eggs attached to container surfaces. Regular cleaning is therefore necessary in addition to simply emptying and refilling containers. Failure to maintain containers may allow mosquito populations to persist within the domestic environment (WHO, 2023).

The socioeconomic circumstances of households may also influence these practices. Households with limited financial resources may have fewer storage options and may rely on inexpensive buckets, plastic containers, drums and other receptacles. They may also experience greater dependence on water vendors or intermittent sources, which can increase the need for storage. Thus, economic constraints may indirectly influence environmental conditions associated with mosquito breeding (Ogunbode et al., 2026).

Rapid urban development presents another challenge. Urban communities may experience inadequate drainage, overcrowding, irregular water supply and poor waste disposal. These conditions can create multiple sources of standing water in addition to household storage containers. The resulting environmental complexity makes mosquito control more difficult because eliminating one breeding source may not be sufficient when other habitats remain available (WHO & UNICEF, 2024).

Ikorodu LGA presents a particularly important setting for examining this problem. Research conducted across Lagos State found that Ikorodu had the highest Aedes container index among the eight LGAs investigated. Of 1,348 potential larval habitats examined in Ikorodu, 1,236 were positive, corresponding to a container index of 91.7% (Adeleke et al., 2025).

The findings from Ikorodu are particularly concerning because discarded containers were important mosquito habitats. The study found very high positivity associated with discarded plastic containers and identified Aedes mosquitoes in artificial water-holding habitats around residential environments. This demonstrates that water-holding materials within the urban environment can make substantial contributions to mosquito breeding (Adeleke et al., 2025).

Ikorodu has also been identified as a location supporting malaria-vector breeding. Research involving Majidun and Oke-Ota communities documented Anopheles gambiae breeding habitats in gutters, ponds, small stagnant pools, muddy water and runoff around houses. These findings demonstrate that mosquito breeding in Ikorodu involves multiple habitat types and is influenced by the interaction between human activity and environmental conditions (Awolola et al., 2023).

The coexistence of different mosquito breeding habitats creates a complex vector-control problem. Household water containers may favour Aedes species, while puddles, gutters and other suitable water bodies may support Anopheles and other mosquito genera. Consequently, households and communities need to understand that mosquito breeding is not restricted to one particular type of water body (WHO, 2023).

A further problem is the possibility of insufficient public awareness regarding the relationship between household water management and mosquito breeding. Residents may associate mosquito breeding mainly with dirty drains, swamps or stagnant pools while overlooking clean water stored in domestic containers. This perception may cause households to protect their drinking water from contamination without necessarily recognizing the importance of preventing mosquitoes from accessing the stored water (WHO, 2023).

Another concern is that household water storage is often considered primarily a water-supply issue rather than an environmental health issue. Consequently, water interventions may focus on quantity and quality without adequately addressing the vector-control implications of storage. WHO’s integrated guidance emphasizes that water, sanitation, waste management and mosquito control should be considered together because environmental interventions can simultaneously improve several health outcomes (WHO & UNICEF, 2024).

The problem is further complicated by the fact that households cannot always eliminate water storage. Where water is intermittent, advising residents simply not to store water may be unrealistic and impractical. Effective public health interventions must therefore identify safer storage practices that allow households to retain necessary water while minimizing mosquito access. Such practices include properly covering containers, cleaning them regularly, avoiding unnecessary accumulation of water and eliminating unused water-holding materials (WHO, 2023).

There is also a potential gap between knowledge and actual household practice. A household may know that uncovered containers can breed mosquitoes but still leave containers uncovered because of inconvenience, damaged lids, container design or frequent use of the stored water. Therefore, assessing knowledge alone may not adequately explain mosquito-breeding risk. Direct examination of household practices is required to determine how water is actually stored and managed.

The physical characteristics of household storage facilities may create additional challenges. Containers with wide openings may be difficult to cover effectively, while large tanks may have openings that are rarely inspected. Damaged covers may create gaps through which mosquitoes can enter. These conditions suggest that interventions must consider both household behaviour and the physical design of storage facilities (WHO, 2021).

Environmental conditions outside the household may also undermine household efforts. Even if a family properly covers its water containers, discarded bottles, tyres, plastics, blocked drains and other objects in the surrounding environment may remain available for mosquito breeding. Recent Lagos research found that discarded containers and tyres were important Aedes habitats, demonstrating the need for household interventions to be combined with broader environmental sanitation (Adeleke et al., 2025).

Seasonal rainfall can further increase the number of water-holding habitats around homes. Rainwater may accumulate in discarded objects and poorly drained areas, while households may simultaneously collect and store additional water. This combination can increase the number of aquatic habitats available to mosquitoes during suitable climatic periods (WHO, 2024).

The implications extend beyond nuisance mosquito bites. Aedes mosquitoes can transmit dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya and other arboviral diseases, while Anopheles mosquitoes transmit malaria. Therefore, an environment that supports high mosquito populations may contribute to multiple vector-borne disease risks depending on the species and pathogens present (WHO, 2023).

There is therefore a need to generate evidence that connects actual household water-storage practices with observable mosquito-breeding risk. Existing studies in Lagos have demonstrated substantial mosquito breeding and high larval indices, including particularly high Aedes container positivity in Ikorodu. However, these entomological findings do not by themselves explain the household behaviours that may be contributing to the availability of such breeding habitats (Adeleke et al., 2025).

Similarly, studies documenting Anopheles breeding in Ikorodu have identified environmental habitats but have not necessarily provided detailed information about household water-storage behaviour. The gap between entomological evidence and household behavioural evidence creates a need for a study that examines how residents store water and how those practices may correspond with mosquito-breeding opportunities (Awolola et al., 2023).

If this gap remains unaddressed, public health interventions may continue to focus heavily on mosquitoes after they have become adults rather than sufficiently reducing the aquatic habitats from which they emerge. Integrated vector control requires a combination of measures, and source reduction can be particularly relevant where mosquito breeding occurs close to human habitation (WHO, 2026).

The central problem, therefore, is that household water storage is necessary for many urban households but may simultaneously create or maintain mosquito-breeding habitats when storage practices are inadequate. In Ikorodu LGA, where recent entomological research has documented exceptionally high Aedes container positivity and where Anopheles breeding has also been reported, there is a need to understand the household practices that may contribute to mosquito breeding.

This study consequently seeks to examine household water storage practices and the risk of mosquito breeding among households in selected urban communities in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State. The study will specifically investigate the types of storage containers used, methods of covering containers, frequency of cleaning and emptying, duration of storage, storage locations, household knowledge and other practices associated with mosquito-breeding risk.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of this study is to examine household water storage practices and the risk of mosquito breeding in selected urban communities in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. determine the common household water-storage practices among households in selected urban communities in Ikorodu LGA;
2. identify the types of water-storage containers commonly used by households in the selected communities;
3. assess the extent to which households cover, clean and regularly empty their water-storage containers;
4. determine the level of mosquito-breeding risk associated with household water-storage practices

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What are the common household water-storage practices among households in selected urban communities in Ikorodu LGA?
2. What types of water-storage containers are commonly used by households in the selected communities?
3. To what extent do households cover, clean and regularly empty their water-storage containers?
4. What is the level of mosquito-breeding risk associated with household water-storage practices?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between household water-storage practices and the risk of mosquito breeding among households in selected urban communities in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to public health practitioners because it will provide evidence on how household water-management behaviours may contribute to mosquito-breeding opportunities. The findings may assist health professionals in designing environmental health interventions that address household-level sources of mosquito breeding.

The study will be useful to the Lagos State Ministry of Health and other agencies responsible for vector control. Evidence on the types of containers used, storage duration, covering practices and cleaning patterns may help policymakers develop more targeted community-based source-reduction programmes.

The study will also be useful to local government health authorities in Ikorodu LGA. Local health officers may use the findings to identify communities and household practices requiring intensified environmental health education, inspection and mosquito-control activities.

Community health workers may benefit from the study because it will provide information that can be incorporated into household health education. Rather than focusing exclusively on mosquito nets and insecticides, health education can emphasize practical actions such as covering water containers, regularly emptying unnecessary containers, cleaning storage vessels and eliminating stagnant water around homes.

Households in the selected communities will be among the major beneficiaries. The study may improve awareness of the relationship between water-storage behaviour and mosquito breeding and encourage practical measures that reduce mosquito-breeding opportunities without compromising the household’s need to store water.

The study will also be useful to environmental health officers. The findings may support community sanitation activities by demonstrating the importance of household water containers alongside drains, refuse sites, tyres and other environmental breeding habitats.

Researchers and students in public health, environmental health, community health, epidemiology and related disciplines may also benefit from the study. It will provide empirical evidence from an urban Nigerian setting and may serve as a basis for further research on household water management and vector-borne disease risks.

Finally, the study may contribute to broader mosquito-control efforts in Lagos State by highlighting the importance of integrating water-supply management, household storage practices, environmental sanitation and vector control. Such integration is consistent with WHO’s emphasis on integrated vector management and larval-source reduction (WHO, 2026).

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on household water-storage practices and the risk of mosquito breeding among households in selected urban communities in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.

The geographical scope is limited to selected urban communities within Ikorodu LGA. The specific communities will be selected based on their urban characteristics, household concentration, accessibility and relevance to the objectives of the study.

The population scope comprises households within the selected communities. Where necessary, the head of household or an adult household member who is knowledgeable about the household’s water sources, storage practices and environmental conditions will serve as the respondent.

The content scope covers household water sources, types of storage containers, container size and condition, covering practices, cleaning frequency, emptying frequency, duration of water storage, location of containers, rainwater accumulation, environmental sanitation and household knowledge of mosquito-breeding habitats.

The study also considers mosquito-breeding risk associated with household water-storage practices. Where field observation is incorporated into the research methodology, potential breeding habitats and the presence of mosquito larvae or pupae may be assessed using appropriate environmental-health procedures.

The study does not seek to estimate the prevalence of malaria, dengue, yellow fever or other mosquito-borne diseases among residents. It is primarily concerned with household practices and environmental conditions associated with mosquito-breeding risk.

1.8 Delimitation of the Study

The study is delimited to selected urban communities within Ikorodu Local Government Area of Lagos State rather than the entire Lagos State. The delimitation is necessary because comprehensive assessment of every household in the LGA or state would be impractical within the available time and resources.

The study focuses on households rather than schools, markets, industrial premises or public institutions. Although such locations may also contain mosquito-breeding habitats, they fall outside the principal unit of analysis of this study.

The study is also delimited to water-storage practices. Other environmental factors such as drainage systems, solid waste disposal and natural wetlands may be observed as contextual factors but will not constitute the primary independent variable.

The study will concentrate on domestic storage containers such as drums, buckets, tanks, basins and other household vessels capable of holding water. Abandoned containers and environmental waste may be considered where they occur within the immediate household environment because they may provide additional breeding habitats.

The study is further delimited to mosquito-breeding risk rather than clinical disease outcomes. Therefore, the presence of mosquito larvae or other indicators of breeding will not automatically be interpreted as evidence that residents have contracted a particular mosquito-borne disease.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Household: A person or group of persons living together in a dwelling and sharing domestic arrangements and facilities, particularly water resources and household activities.

Household Water Storage: The collection and retention of water in containers or storage facilities within or around a household for later domestic use.

Water-Storage Practices: The behaviours and methods households use to collect, store, maintain and use water, including the type of container used, covering, cleaning, emptying, duration of storage and location of containers.

Water-Storage Container: Any vessel used by a household to retain water for subsequent use, including drums, buckets, tanks, basins, plastic containers and similar receptacles.

Covered Container: A water-storage vessel whose opening is adequately protected by a lid, cover, netting or other barrier that prevents or substantially restricts mosquito access.

Uncovered Container: A water-storage vessel whose opening is exposed sufficiently to allow mosquitoes to access the stored water.

Mosquito: An insect belonging to the family Culicidae. In this study, the term refers generally to mosquitoes capable of breeding in aquatic habitats around households, including Aedes, Culex and Anopheles species where applicable.

Mosquito Breeding: The reproductive process through which mosquitoes lay eggs and develop through larval and pupal stages in suitable aquatic habitats before emerging as adults.

Mosquito-Breeding Risk: The likelihood that household water-storage practices or associated environmental conditions provide suitable habitats for mosquito oviposition and immature mosquito development.

Container Index: The proportion or percentage of inspected water-holding containers that contain mosquito larvae or pupae. It is an entomological indicator commonly used in assessing container-breeding mosquito populations.

Standing Water: Water that remains relatively stationary in a container, depression, drainage area or other location for a period sufficient to potentially support mosquito development.

Source Reduction: Environmental measures designed to eliminate, modify or manage mosquito breeding habitats, including emptying, covering, cleaning or removing water-holding containers.

Urban Community: A relatively densely populated settlement characterized by built-up residential and socioeconomic activities and associated urban infrastructure.

Household Environmental Sanitation: Practices undertaken by households to maintain clean and hygienic surroundings, including proper management of water, waste, drainage and other environmental conditions that may affect health.

Project – Household Water Storage Practices and the Risk of Mosquito Breeding in Urban Communities: A Study of Households in Ikorodu Local Government Area, Lagos State.