Project – Household Water Handling Practices and the Risk of Waterborne Diseases among Residents of Selected Rural Communities in Nasarawa State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Water is one of the most fundamental requirements for human survival and an indispensable component of public health. Human beings require water for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene, cleaning, food preparation, agriculture and other domestic activities. However, the health benefits of water depend not only on its availability but also on its microbiological, chemical and physical safety. Water that is contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms or harmful chemicals can become an important vehicle for disease transmission. The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that contaminated drinking water and inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene services are associated with diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and poliomyelitis (World Health Organization [WHO], 2022). Consequently, access to safe water is not merely an environmental concern but a critical public-health requirement.

Globally, significant progress has been made in improving access to drinking water, but substantial inequalities remain, particularly between urban and rural populations. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme reported that between 2015 and 2024, global coverage of safely managed drinking-water services increased from 68% to 74%. Nevertheless, approximately 2.1 billion people still lacked safely managed drinking-water services in 2024, with rural populations continuing to experience greater disadvantages than urban populations (WHO & UNICEF, 2025). These inequalities are important because rural households are more likely to depend on decentralized water sources such as wells, springs, streams, boreholes, rainwater and surface water, many of which may be vulnerable to contamination.

The quality of drinking water is influenced by several stages between the source and the point of consumption. Water may be contaminated at the source through human and animal faeces, agricultural runoff, flooding, poor drainage, refuse disposal or proximity of water sources to pit latrines and septic systems. Even where water is relatively safe at the source, contamination may occur during collection, transportation, storage and use within the household. Thus, household water safety is a chain involving the source of water, collection practices, transportation, storage containers, treatment practices, handling methods and the manner in which water is dispensed for consumption. The WHO (2022) therefore recommends a risk-management approach that considers water safety from the source through to the consumer.

Household water handling practices are particularly important in communities where reliable piped water supplies are unavailable. Household members may collect water in buckets, jerry cans, drums, clay pots or plastic containers and store it for several hours or days before use. During this period, water can become contaminated through dirty containers, uncovered storage, contact with hands, cups or utensils, dipping vessels into storage containers, and improper cleaning of containers. Water that was originally of acceptable quality can therefore become contaminated after collection. The possibility of contamination at the household level makes safe storage and hygienic handling essential components of disease prevention.

Household water treatment is another important component of safe water handling. Common methods include boiling, chlorination, filtration, solar disinfection and the use of approved water-treatment products. WHO recognizes household water treatment as an important intervention where safe and continuous water supplies are unavailable, particularly in resource-constrained settings (WHO, 2011). However, treatment is only effective when the appropriate method is available, correctly applied and consistently used. The effectiveness of household treatment can also be undermined by subsequent contamination during storage and handling. Consequently, the study of household water handling should not be limited to whether households treat water but should examine the entire sequence of water collection, transportation, storage, treatment and use.

Evidence indicates that the global burden associated with inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene remains considerable. The WHO’s global burden assessment estimated that unsafe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene contributed substantially to preventable disease and mortality, including diarrhoeal diseases, acute respiratory infections, soil-transmitted helminthiases and undernutrition (WHO, 2023). The WHO further reported that inadequate WASH services were responsible for an estimated 1.4 million preventable deaths and 74 million disability-adjusted life years in 2019. These findings demonstrate that improving household water practices can contribute substantially to disease prevention and the achievement of public-health objectives (WHO, 2023).

In Nigeria, the challenge of safe water remains particularly significant because of the country’s large population, rapid population growth, socioeconomic inequalities and differences in water infrastructure across geographical areas. According to the 2024 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, 78% of Nigerian households obtained drinking water from improved sources, but the proportion was much higher in urban areas than rural areas. Rural households had substantially lower access to improved drinking-water sources. The report also showed that only 7% of the household population lived in households using an appropriate method of drinking-water treatment, while 88% did not use any treatment method to make drinking water safer (National Population Commission [NPC], Federal Ministry of Health and Social Welfare [FMoHSW], & ICF, 2025).

The low prevalence of household water treatment in Nigeria is important because access to an improved water source does not automatically mean that the water consumed by households is free from contamination. An improved source is designed to protect water from external contamination, but contamination can occur during collection, transportation and household storage. Thus, the distinction between access to an improved source and actual access to microbiologically safe water is critical. The Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey’s findings suggest that many households may obtain water from sources that are categorized as improved but still fail to undertake additional measures to ensure safety at the point of consumption (NPC, FMoHSW, & ICF, 2025).

Nigeria’s WASH situation also demonstrates considerable rural-urban inequality. Rural communities frequently face challenges such as inadequate water infrastructure, long distances to water sources, seasonal fluctuations in water availability, poorly maintained boreholes, dependence on streams and shallow wells, and limited household resources for purchasing water-treatment products. UNICEF Nigeria identifies inadequate access to improved water, sanitation and hygiene as an important contributor to morbidity and mortality, particularly among children, and emphasizes the need to improve sustainable water services in rural communities (UNICEF Nigeria, n.d.).

The sustainability of water facilities is also an important concern. A water source may technically exist in a community but may not provide reliable or safe water throughout the year. UNICEF Nigeria’s Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector-Wide Sustainability Check found that only 46% of WASH services assessed in Nigeria were sustainable. Frequent breakdown of water facilities, poor water quality at both the source and point of consumption, inadequate provider capacity and weak maintenance systems were identified among the major challenges affecting sustainability (UNICEF Nigeria, 2023). Such conditions may encourage households to alternate between different water sources depending on availability, cost and season, thereby increasing exposure to potentially contaminated sources.

The situation is especially relevant in rural communities where households may have limited choices concerning water sources. When boreholes or protected wells become non-functional, residents may resort to streams, rivers, ponds, shallow wells or water vendors. Ayiwulu and Alexander (2015), in their study of domestic water in Nassarawa Eggon Town, Nasarawa State, reported that households relied heavily on hand-dug wells and streams, with the absence of adequate pipe-borne water contributing to difficulties in accessing safe domestic water. The study further identified contamination, distance to water sources and water-related diseases among the problems experienced by residents.

The findings from Nassarawa Eggon are particularly relevant to the present study because they demonstrate that water-related challenges are not merely national or international concerns but occur within Nasarawa State itself. The study reported that 45.6% of respondents identified hand-dug wells as a major source of domestic water, while streams accounted for 23.8%. It also found that many households did not regard water treatment as a routine precautionary measure. Typhoid fever and dysentery were among the water-related diseases reported by respondents (Ayiwulu & Alexander, 2015). These findings suggest the importance of investigating not only where households obtain water but also how the water is handled after collection.

Further evidence from Nasarawa State demonstrates that some local water sources may contain biological contaminants. Pam et al. (2018) investigated local drinking-water sources in Doma Local Government Area of Nasarawa State and examined 48 water samples collected from boreholes, wells and streams. The researchers reported that 32 samples, representing 66.67%, were contaminated with parasites, including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Trichuris trichiura, Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworm and Fasciola hepatica. Stream water recorded particularly high contamination, while borehole samples showed no contamination in the samples examined (Pam et al., 2018).

The presence of parasitic contaminants in local drinking-water sources is significant because rural households may consume such water directly or after inadequate treatment. Where water is collected from streams, wells or other vulnerable sources, households may assume that water is safe because it appears clear, has no unpleasant odour or has been used traditionally for a long period. However, many disease-causing microorganisms cannot be detected through visual inspection. Safe-looking water may therefore contain pathogens capable of causing gastrointestinal and other infections. This reinforces the importance of appropriate treatment and safe handling practices at household level.

Household water handling begins with the collection process. The container used to collect water can influence the likelihood of contamination. Dirty or previously contaminated containers can introduce microorganisms into water even when the original source is relatively safe. Containers with narrow openings may reduce hand and utensil contact, whereas wide-mouth containers may allow easier contamination through hands, cups and other objects. The frequency with which containers are washed, the materials used for washing and the method of drying may also influence the microbial quality of stored water. Thus, household water safety is closely connected with knowledge and behaviour concerning the maintenance of water-storage containers.

Transportation can also introduce contamination. Water may be transported over long distances, sometimes on the head, by bicycle, motorcycle, cart or other means. During transportation, containers may come into contact with soil, dust, animals or other contaminated surfaces. Containers may also be left open to prevent spillage or because of convenience. The longer the transportation period and the more frequently the water is exposed to environmental conditions, the greater the opportunity for contamination. These challenges may be more pronounced in rural communities where households travel considerable distances to obtain water.

Storage practices constitute another important risk factor. Safe storage involves keeping treated or otherwise safe water in clean, covered containers and preventing direct contact between the stored water and potentially contaminated hands, cups or utensils. A household may have adequate water but still face health risks if the water is stored in dirty or uncovered containers. Water storage for long periods may also increase opportunities for microbial growth or contamination, especially where containers are not regularly cleaned. Therefore, the assessment of household water practices should examine the condition of storage containers, whether containers are covered, how water is removed, how frequently containers are cleaned and whether hands or utensils come into contact with stored water.

The method used to withdraw water from storage containers is particularly important. Dipping a cup, bowl or other utensil repeatedly into a storage container can transfer microorganisms from the hands or utensils into the stored water. Pouring water from the container or using a tap attached to a storage vessel may reduce direct contact. Consequently, household water safety involves not only treatment but also hygienic dispensing practices. The importance of such practices is consistent with the broader principle that contamination can occur at multiple points between the water source and the consumer (WHO, 2022).

Evidence from Nigeria supports concern about contamination at the household level. Ola et al. (2024), in a microbiological investigation of hand-rinse, stored and drinking water in households in Ibule-Soro, Nigeria, detected several bacterial groups in household water samples. The study reported substantial loads of Escherichia coli in stored water and the presence of enteric bacteria in drinking-water samples. The researchers concluded that stored and drinking water should be appropriately treated before consumption to reduce potential gastrointestinal health risks.

The occurrence of E. coli in household water is particularly relevant because it is widely used as an indicator of faecal contamination. Its presence suggests that water may have been exposed to faecal material and may therefore contain other enteric pathogens. Although the presence of an indicator organism does not establish the presence of every pathogen, it provides an important warning regarding the microbiological safety of drinking water. Consequently, household practices that prevent faecal contamination during collection, transportation, storage and use are essential to protecting health.

Waterborne diseases represent an important public-health concern associated with unsafe water handling. These diseases include diarrhoeal illnesses, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and certain parasitic infections. The risk of infection is influenced by the type and degree of contamination, the quantity of contaminated water consumed, the susceptibility of individuals and the effectiveness of household prevention practices. Children, older adults and persons with compromised health may be particularly vulnerable to the consequences of unsafe water and diarrhoeal disease. Poor water quality may also contribute indirectly to malnutrition when repeated gastrointestinal infections impair nutrient absorption.

Diarrhoeal disease is particularly important in communities with inadequate WASH conditions. Repeated diarrhoeal episodes can result in dehydration, loss of nutrients, reduced productivity and increased healthcare expenditure. Among children, repeated diarrhoea can contribute to poor nutritional outcomes and impaired growth. UNICEF Nigeria identifies contaminated water and poor sanitation as important contributors to diarrhoeal illness and other water-related health problems among Nigerian children (UNICEF Nigeria, n.d.).

Socioeconomic conditions may also shape household water handling practices. Households with higher incomes may be better able to purchase bottled or sachet water, install filtration systems, purchase chlorine products or construct improved water-storage facilities. Poorer households may have to depend on whatever source is locally available and affordable, even when the source is of uncertain quality. Thus, household water handling is partly determined by the interaction between knowledge, behaviour, economic resources and environmental availability.

Education may influence water handling practices by shaping knowledge of contamination pathways and disease prevention. Individuals who understand the relationship between unsafe water and disease may be more likely to treat drinking water, clean storage containers, cover stored water and use hygienic methods of dispensing. However, knowledge alone may not always translate into safe practice if households lack the resources or facilities required to implement recommended measures. Therefore, the relationship between knowledge and practice must be understood within the broader socioeconomic and environmental context.

Cultural practices and perceptions may also influence water handling. In some communities, certain water sources may be trusted because they have traditionally been used for generations. Conversely, households may reject particular treatment methods because of taste, cost, perceived inconvenience or beliefs about water quality. Ojomo et al. (2015) observed that sustainability of household water-treatment and safe-storage interventions depends on several factors, including user preferences, availability of resources, product guidance, standards and certification, integration with existing programmes and market considerations.

The availability and reliability of household water treatment products are equally important. Chlorine, filters and other treatment technologies may be effective when used correctly, but their adoption may be constrained by cost, availability, taste, lack of information, inconsistent supply and uncertainty about appropriate dosage. Boiling can be effective for microbial safety but may require substantial fuel, time and labour. In households where fuel is expensive or scarce, boiling may not be practiced consistently. Therefore, interventions designed to improve household water safety must take account of the realities of rural households.

Seasonal variation can further influence water availability and contamination. During the rainy season, runoff can carry human and animal waste into streams, shallow wells and other water sources. Flooding may contaminate wells and expose communities to faecal material. During the dry season, water sources may become scarce, forcing households to depend on alternative sources that may be farther away or less safe. These seasonal changes can affect both the quantity and quality of available water. Rural households therefore require practices that remain effective under changing environmental conditions.

Nasarawa State provides an important setting for examining these issues because of its mixture of rural and semi-urban settlements, dependence on groundwater and surface-water sources, agricultural activities and variations in access to water infrastructure. Previous studies within the state have demonstrated concerns relating to water availability and water quality. The findings from Nassarawa Eggon and Doma show that communities within the state can experience both difficulties in obtaining adequate domestic water and microbiological contamination of local sources (Ayiwulu & Alexander, 2015; Pam et al., 2018).

Despite these studies, there remains a need to investigate what happens to water after it reaches the household. A community may have an improved water source, but if water is collected in contaminated containers, transported without adequate protection, stored improperly or repeatedly handled with unclean hands and utensils, the health benefits of the source may be lost. Conversely, households relying on less-protected sources may reduce disease risk substantially if they consistently apply appropriate treatment and safe-storage practices. This distinction makes household behaviour an important area of public-health investigation.

The concept of household water handling is therefore broader than the mere possession of a safe water source. It includes the behaviours through which water is collected, transported, stored, treated, protected and consumed. A comprehensive assessment should examine the type of source used by households, frequency of collection, collection containers, cleaning practices, transportation methods, storage conditions, treatment practices, treatment frequency, methods of dispensing water and reported occurrence of waterborne diseases. Such an approach makes it possible to identify specific behavioural points where contamination may occur.

The WHO recommends water safety planning as a preventive approach for maintaining safe drinking water from source to consumer. This approach is particularly relevant to rural communities and small water supplies, where infrastructure and monitoring capacity may be limited. WHO’s field guide for rural communities emphasizes prevention of waterborne disease and the need to address everyday challenges associated with maintaining safe water supplies (WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2022).

The present study is therefore concerned with household water handling practices and their possible relationship with the risk of waterborne diseases among residents of selected rural communities in Nasarawa State. The study recognizes that disease prevention cannot depend solely on government provision of improved water infrastructure. Household-level behaviour is also essential because water can become contaminated after leaving the source. Understanding how rural households handle their water will provide useful evidence for community health education, environmental health interventions, WASH programming and local policy.

The study is also justified by the need to generate location-specific evidence. Although national surveys provide useful information on water access and treatment, national averages may conceal substantial differences between communities. Similarly, studies conducted in other parts of Nasarawa State may not adequately represent the experiences of residents in the selected rural communities for this study. Investigating the local situation will therefore help establish the specific household practices that may increase or reduce exposure to waterborne diseases.

Ultimately, safe household water handling is a practical and relatively accessible component of disease prevention. Improvements in water-source infrastructure are important, but their health benefits can be compromised if households fail to protect water after collection. Strengthening household knowledge, encouraging appropriate treatment, promoting safe storage, improving container hygiene and reducing unsafe handling can complement infrastructure-based interventions. The findings of this study are expected to contribute to evidence-based strategies for reducing waterborne disease risks in rural communities in Nasarawa State.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Safe drinking water is fundamental to human health, yet many households in Nigeria continue to experience challenges in accessing and maintaining safe water. The problem is particularly pronounced in rural communities where households may depend on wells, streams, boreholes, rainwater and other decentralized sources. The 2024 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey indicates that although 78% of Nigerian households use improved drinking-water sources, rural households remain considerably disadvantaged compared with urban households. More importantly, only 7% of the household population uses an appropriate method of treating drinking water, while the overwhelming majority does not use any treatment method to make water safer (NPC, FMoHSW, & ICF, 2025).

The problem is not limited to the availability of water at the source. Water can become contaminated at several stages between collection and consumption. A household may obtain water from a borehole or protected well but subsequently contaminate the water through dirty collection containers, unclean hands, uncovered storage vessels, contaminated dispensing utensils or poor treatment practices. This means that measuring access to improved water sources alone may not provide a complete picture of the actual risk of waterborne disease within households.

The situation is particularly concerning in rural areas where households may have limited alternatives when their preferred water sources are unavailable. When boreholes fail, wells dry up or water becomes expensive, residents may resort to streams, ponds, unprotected wells or other sources that are more susceptible to contamination. In Nassarawa Eggon Town, for example, Ayiwulu and Alexander (2015) found that hand-dug wells and streams constituted important sources of domestic water and that residents experienced problems relating to contamination, water scarcity and water-related diseases.

The microbiological safety of some local water sources in Nasarawa State is also questionable. Pam et al. (2018) found parasitic contamination in 66.67% of sampled drinking-water sources in Doma Local Government Area, with stream water showing particularly high levels of contamination. The parasites identified included Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, hookworm and Fasciola hepatica (Pam et al., 2018). Such findings indicate that residents who consume untreated or inadequately treated water from vulnerable sources may face exposure to pathogenic organisms.

Another dimension of the problem is the possibility of recontamination after water has been collected. Even where households obtain water from relatively protected sources, inadequate cleaning of storage containers, uncovered storage and unhygienic dispensing may compromise water quality. Recent Nigerian evidence from Ibule-Soro found enteric bacteria, including E. coli, in stored and drinking-water samples, demonstrating that household water can contain bacterial contaminants even after collection (Ola et al., 2024).

The low use of household water-treatment methods further increases concern. Although boiling, chlorination and filtration can reduce microbial contamination when appropriately used, many households may not treat their drinking water consistently. Barriers may include inadequate knowledge, cost, availability of treatment materials, taste concerns, inconvenience, lack of fuel for boiling and perceptions that clear water is automatically safe. The result is that potentially contaminated water may be consumed without adequate treatment.

Waterborne diseases can impose considerable health and socioeconomic consequences on rural households. Episodes of diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid and parasitic infections can result in expenditure on treatment, loss of workdays, school absenteeism and reduced household productivity. Repeated illness may be especially harmful to children and other vulnerable household members. WHO’s global assessment of unsafe WASH demonstrates that inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene continue to contribute substantially to preventable disease and mortality worldwide (WHO, 2023).

The problem may also be reinforced by inadequate WASH infrastructure and poor sustainability of water facilities. UNICEF Nigeria reported that only 46% of WASH services assessed in its national sustainability check met the criteria for sustainability, with frequent facility breakdown, poor water quality at source and point of consumption, and weak service-provider capacity identified as major challenges (UNICEF Nigeria, 2023). When community water facilities are unreliable, households may be forced to combine multiple water sources and alter their normal water-handling routines.

There is also a knowledge gap concerning the relationship between specific household water-handling behaviours and self-reported waterborne disease risks in rural communities of Nasarawa State. Existing research within the state has provided useful information on water sources, domestic water demand and parasitic contamination of water sources, but there is comparatively less evidence focusing specifically on what residents do with water after collecting it. The distinction is important because interventions directed solely at water infrastructure may not adequately address contamination introduced during household storage and use.

Furthermore, national WASH statistics may mask substantial community-level differences. Household water practices can vary according to socioeconomic status, education, occupation, household size, distance to water sources, availability of treatment materials, cultural beliefs and previous experience with water-related diseases. Consequently, findings from national surveys cannot automatically be assumed to describe the practices of every rural community in Nasarawa State.

If unsafe household water handling practices remain unaddressed, residents may continue to experience preventable exposure to waterborne pathogens despite investments in water infrastructure. The persistence of such practices may undermine public-health efforts aimed at reducing diarrhoeal and other water-related illnesses. There is therefore a need to identify the specific household practices that characterize water collection, transportation, storage, treatment and consumption in selected rural communities.

The central problem of this study, therefore, is the uncertainty regarding the extent to which household water handling practices contribute to the risk of waterborne diseases among residents of selected rural communities in Nasarawa State. It is necessary to determine the major sources of household water, how residents collect and transport water, how containers are cleaned and stored, whether water is treated before consumption, the methods of treatment used, and the extent to which unsafe practices are associated with reported waterborne illnesses.

Addressing this problem will provide evidence that can be used by environmental health officers, community health practitioners, local government authorities, WASH programme managers and community leaders to develop interventions that address both water infrastructure and household behaviour. The study is consequently designed to assess household water handling practices and determine their relationship with the risk of waterborne diseases among residents of selected rural communities in Nasarawa State.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to assess household water handling practices and the risk of waterborne diseases among residents of selected rural communities in Nasarawa State.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. determine the major sources of water used by households in the selected rural communities;
2. assess the methods used by residents to collect and transport household water;
3. examine household water-storage practices among residents;
4. assess the methods and frequency of household water treatment before consumption

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What are the major sources of water used by households in the selected rural communities in Nasarawa State?
2. What methods do residents use to collect and transport household water?
3. How do residents store water within their households?
4. What methods of household water treatment are used before drinking?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between household water handling practices and the risk of waterborne diseases among residents of selected rural communities in Nasarawa State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will be significant to residents of rural communities because it will increase awareness of the importance of protecting water from contamination between the point of collection and consumption. The study will draw attention to practical measures such as cleaning and covering water containers, avoiding direct hand contact with stored water, treating water appropriately and maintaining hygienic storage conditions.

The study will also be useful to community health practitioners and environmental health officers. The findings can provide evidence for developing targeted health-education programmes on household water treatment, safe storage and hygienic handling. Rather than providing general WASH messages, health workers may use the findings to address the specific unsafe practices identified within the communities.

Local government authorities and WASH programme managers may also benefit from the findings. Evidence regarding the major water sources used by residents, the reliability of those sources and the household practices associated with water contamination can support the planning of rural water interventions. The findings may assist authorities in prioritizing functional boreholes, protected wells, water-quality monitoring, community water management and household treatment interventions.

The study will be relevant to policymakers because it will provide community-level evidence on the behavioural dimension of water safety. Policies that focus exclusively on infrastructure may not achieve their full health benefits if households continue to handle water unsafely. The findings may therefore support integrated policies that combine water-supply improvement with behaviour-change communication and environmental-health education.

The study will also be useful to community leaders and development organizations. Traditional leaders, religious leaders, community development associations and non-governmental organizations can use the evidence to design community-based interventions. Community participation is particularly important in rural settings because sustainable WASH interventions require local ownership, maintenance and behavioural commitment.

Researchers and students in public health, community health, environmental health, nursing and related disciplines will also benefit from the study. The findings will contribute to the existing literature on household water management and waterborne disease prevention in Nigeria and may serve as a reference for future studies in Nasarawa State and other rural communities.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on household water handling practices and the risk of waterborne diseases among residents of selected rural communities in Nasarawa State.

The content scope covers household sources of water, water collection practices, transportation, storage, cleaning of water containers, water treatment, frequency of treatment, methods of dispensing stored water, hygienic practices and reported occurrence of waterborne diseases.

The study will also examine selected demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of respondents, including age, sex, educational level, occupation, household size and other characteristics considered relevant to household water-handling behaviour.

Geographically, the study is restricted to selected rural communities in Nasarawa State. The specific communities to be included will depend on the sampling plan and accessibility of the researcher.

1.8 Delimitation of the Study

The study is delimited to household water handling rather than the broader assessment of all WASH conditions. Although sanitation and hygiene are important determinants of waterborne disease, they will only be considered to the extent that they directly relate to household water handling and contamination.

The study will also focus primarily on household-level practices and reported disease experiences. It will not constitute a comprehensive laboratory investigation of every water source or clinical confirmation of every reported waterborne disease. Where water-quality testing is not included in the methodology, reported illness will be treated as self-reported information rather than laboratory-confirmed diagnosis.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Household: A person or group of persons living together and sharing arrangements for food, water and other domestic needs.

Household Water: Water obtained and used by members of a household for drinking, cooking and other domestic purposes.

Water Handling Practices: The behaviours and procedures involved in collecting, transporting, storing, treating, dispensing and consuming household water.

Water Collection: The process by which household members obtain water from a source and place it in a container for transportation and domestic use.

Water Transportation: The movement of water from its source to the household or storage location.

Water Storage: The keeping of collected water in containers for later domestic use.

Safe Water Storage: Storage of water in a clean, covered and appropriately maintained container in a manner that minimizes contamination.

Household Water Treatment: Any household-level process used to reduce or eliminate harmful microorganisms in drinking water, including boiling, chlorination, filtration or other approved methods.

Waterborne Diseases: Diseases that can be transmitted through consumption or use of water contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms or other disease-causing agents, including diarrhoeal diseases, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and certain parasitic infections.

Risk of Waterborne Diseases: The likelihood that an individual or household may become exposed to or develop a water-related illness as a result of unsafe water sources or handling practices.

Rural Community: A relatively small settlement outside major urban centres where residents may have limited access to centralized water and sanitation infrastructure.

Improved Drinking-Water Source: A drinking-water source designed and constructed to protect the water from outside contamination, such as boreholes, protected wells, protected springs, piped supplies and other sources recognized under international WASH monitoring standards.

Unsafe Water: Water that is contaminated or otherwise unsuitable for human consumption because of biological, chemical or physical hazards.

Safe Household Water: Water that is protected from contamination at the source and during collection, transportation, storage, treatment and consumption and is suitable for its intended domestic use.

1.10 Organization of the Study

The study will be organized into five chapters. Chapter One presents the introduction, background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, research hypothesis, significance, scope, delimitation, operational definitions and organization of the study.

Chapter Two will present the review of related literature. It will cover the conceptual review, theoretical framework, empirical review and identified gap in the literature.

Chapter Three will discuss the research methodology, including the research design, study area, population of the study, sample size, sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validity and reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and methods of data analysis.

Chapter Four will present and analyze the data obtained from the respondents. The results will be presented according to the research questions and hypothesis.

Chapter Five will provide the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations. It will also present suggestions for further studies based on the findings of the research.

Project – Household Water Handling Practices and the Risk of Waterborne Diseases among Residents of Selected Rural Communities in Nasarawa State