Project – Parental Involvement and Social Adjustment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Study of Selected Special Education Centres in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Education is widely recognised as a fundamental instrument for the development of individuals and societies. It provides children with opportunities to acquire knowledge, develop skills, build relationships and participate meaningfully in their communities. However, the right to education is not fulfilled merely by providing access to school; it also requires that educational environments respond to the diverse developmental, social, emotional and learning needs of children. This consideration is particularly important for children with disabilities and developmental conditions who may require additional support to participate effectively in school and community life. UNICEF (2026) observes that children with disabilities continue to encounter barriers to education arising from discrimination, stigma, inadequate school services and exclusion. Such barriers can affect not only academic participation but also children’s opportunities to develop social relationships and functional skills.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by differences in social communication and interaction, together with restricted, repetitive or inflexible patterns of behaviour and interests. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2025) explains that autism is a diverse group of conditions and that the abilities and support needs of autistic individuals vary considerably. Some children may require substantial lifelong support, while others may develop considerable independence. The condition may be detected during early childhood, although diagnosis is sometimes delayed. Because social interaction and communication are central aspects of autism, children with ASD may experience difficulties in establishing relationships, participating in group activities, interpreting social cues and adapting to changes in routines. These characteristics make social adjustment an important dimension of their educational and developmental outcomes.

The global significance of autism has increased considerably as awareness, identification and diagnostic practices have improved. The WHO (2025) estimates that approximately one in 127 people globally had autism in 2021, although prevalence estimates vary substantially across countries and the available data remain limited in many low- and middle-income countries. The organisation further emphasises that evidence-based psychosocial interventions can improve communication and social skills and contribute positively to the well-being and quality of life of autistic people and their caregivers. This suggests that the education and development of children with ASD should not be restricted to academic instruction but should include deliberate efforts to strengthen communication, adaptive behaviour, social participation and relationships.

The Nigerian context presents additional challenges. Research on autism in Nigeria has historically been constrained by limited epidemiological information, inadequate awareness and difficulties associated with diagnosis and intervention. Bakare and Munir (2011) noted that although autism occurs in African populations, knowledge concerning its epidemiology, diagnosis and management in the region remained comparatively limited. Similarly, Bakare, Ebigbo and Ubochi (2012), in a study of Nigerian children with intellectual disability, identified autism among a proportion of the children assessed and emphasised the need for broader epidemiological studies to guide health and social policy. These studies demonstrate that autism is not a foreign or exclusively Western developmental condition but a relevant issue within the Nigerian child-development and education system.

Earlier Nigerian evidence has also highlighted difficulties surrounding delayed recognition and intervention. Bakare et al. (2014) reported that autism accounted for a proportion of new cases seen in a Nigerian paediatric neurological and child psychiatric service and found that the average age at which parents noticed behavioural deviations preceded the average age of diagnosis. Such a gap between recognition and diagnosis can reduce opportunities for early intervention. Since early childhood represents a crucial period for the development of communication, social and adaptive skills, delays in obtaining appropriate support may affect children’s ability to participate successfully in family, school and community environments.

The concept of social adjustment is particularly important when considering the educational experiences of children with ASD. Social adjustment refers broadly to a child’s ability to interact appropriately with others, establish and maintain relationships, participate in group activities, respond to social expectations and adapt to the social environment. For children with autism, social adjustment may involve skills such as initiating interaction, responding to others, sharing, turn-taking, communicating needs, following social routines, tolerating changes and participating in peer activities. Difficulties in these areas can result in isolation, peer rejection, behavioural challenges and reduced participation in school activities. Thus, educational success for children with ASD should be understood not simply in terms of academic performance but also in terms of their ability to function socially and adaptively.

The family constitutes one of the most important environments in which children develop social and behavioural competencies. Parents are usually the first and most consistent caregivers in a child’s life and have extensive opportunities to observe the child’s communication patterns, strengths, difficulties, preferences and responses to different environments. Consequently, parental involvement can provide continuity between home, school and therapeutic settings. UNICEF (2022) notes that parents and caregivers of children with disabilities play a crucial role in supporting learning, navigating education systems, facilitating participation and developing relationships with teachers and schools. Effective parental involvement therefore has the potential to complement professional intervention and promote more consistent developmental support.

Parental involvement may take different forms. It may include communicating regularly with teachers, attending school meetings, monitoring children’s progress, participating in Individualised Education Programmes or other educational planning processes, reinforcing learning activities at home, practising communication and social skills, attending therapy sessions, providing information about the child’s needs and maintaining consistent behavioural strategies. It may also include emotional support, advocacy, transportation to educational or therapeutic services and participation in community activities. The effectiveness of such involvement depends not simply on the presence of parents but on the quality, consistency and appropriateness of their participation.

For children with ASD, the relationship between parents and educational professionals can be especially important because many of the skills taught within special education centres need to be reinforced beyond the classroom. A child may learn to request assistance, initiate communication, share materials or follow a social routine at school, but the generalisation of these skills into home and community settings may require consistent practice. When parents understand the strategies used by teachers and therapists and apply compatible approaches at home, children may encounter greater consistency in expectations and reinforcement. This continuity can potentially facilitate the transfer of social skills from structured educational environments to everyday life.

Empirical evidence supports the relevance of parent-mediated approaches to the development of children with ASD. Althoff et al. (2019), in a systematic review of parent-mediated interventions, found evidence that parent-mediated interventions could improve joint attention, language, non-verbal communication, interaction, play, adaptive functioning and social communication among children with ASD. Their findings demonstrate that parents can play a meaningful role in supporting developmental outcomes when they are appropriately trained and incorporated into intervention processes.

More recent evidence has strengthened this position. Deniz et al. (2024), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of parent-mediated play-based interventions for preschool children with autism, reviewed randomised and quasi-experimental studies and found positive effects on social communication and language skills. Their findings are particularly relevant because play provides a natural context through which children learn turn-taking, joint attention, imitation, communication and reciprocal interaction. When parents participate in structured and developmentally appropriate play activities, they can create opportunities for children with ASD to practise social behaviours in familiar environments.

A broader meta-analysis by Bearss et al. and related researchers has similarly indicated that parent-implemented interventions can produce positive outcomes across areas such as social skills, communication, positive behaviour and adaptive behaviour. The evidence suggests that parents can serve not only as caregivers but also as active partners in intervention when they receive appropriate guidance and support. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of parental involvement may depend on factors such as the child’s developmental characteristics, parental adherence, the intensity of intervention, access to professional support and the resources available to the family.

Parental involvement is also important because social adjustment does not occur exclusively within the school environment. Children with ASD interact with parents, siblings, extended family members, teachers, peers and members of the wider community. Consequently, successful social adjustment requires opportunities to practise skills across different environments. If social behaviours are encouraged only within the special education centre, children may experience difficulty generalising those behaviours to other settings. Parents can therefore provide opportunities for practice during family interactions, play, shopping, religious activities, neighbourhood activities and other community experiences.

The school-family relationship is consequently a significant component of effective special education. Research examining school-based interventions for children with autism has identified family-school partnerships as particularly important because autism involves complex social, communication and behavioural characteristics that often require coordinated support. A systematic review by Stoner et al. (2019) found that school-based autism interventions incorporated parents in different ways and highlighted the importance of family-school partnerships in supporting children with ASD.

The Nigerian environment, however, may present barriers that limit effective parental involvement. These barriers may include inadequate information about autism, financial constraints, competing employment responsibilities, transportation difficulties, limited access to specialised services, cultural beliefs, stigma and insufficient communication between families and educational institutions. A recent Nigerian qualitative study by Azubuike et al. (2024) found that caregivers of children with ASD experienced emotional distress, fear, stigma, social isolation and challenges in accessing educational and therapeutic services. The researchers also reported difficulties relating to the availability of qualified professionals and appropriate support systems.

Azubuike et al. (2024) further found that Nigerian caregivers relied on family members, friends and social networks for emotional and practical support while simultaneously encountering misunderstanding and stigma. The study, conducted among caregivers connected with special-needs schools in Cross River State, revealed that families experienced difficulties in finding appropriate educational systems and emphasised the importance of collaboration between families and educational institutions. Although the study was conducted in Cross River State rather than Rivers State, its findings are relevant to the wider Nigerian context because they demonstrate how social and institutional factors can shape parental participation in autism care and education.

Stigma is another factor that may influence parental involvement and the social adjustment of children with ASD. Where autism is misunderstood or associated with negative cultural interpretations, parents may experience shame, social isolation or pressure from relatives and community members. Such circumstances can discourage families from seeking services or participating openly in school and community activities. Azubuike et al. (2024) reported that caregivers in Nigeria encountered misconceptions and stigma surrounding autism, with some families experiencing misunderstanding from extended family members. These circumstances may indirectly restrict the social opportunities available to autistic children.

The educational system therefore has a responsibility to create meaningful opportunities for parents to participate in their children’s education. Parent involvement should not be understood merely as attending meetings or paying school-related expenses. It should include meaningful communication, collaborative decision-making, home-school continuity, participation in intervention planning, reinforcement of social and communication skills and advocacy for the child’s educational and developmental rights. UNICEF (2022) similarly emphasises the importance of helping caregivers understand their children’s educational rights, support learning at home, establish positive relationships with teachers and schools and access specialised services.

The importance of family participation is also consistent with the broader movement toward inclusive and child-centred education. Children with disabilities have the right to participate in education and community life without discrimination. UNICEF (2025) observes that children with disabilities face persistent barriers arising from stigma, discrimination and education systems that fail to adequately incorporate disability. Inclusive education therefore requires more than placing children in educational institutions; it requires appropriate support, participation and adaptation of educational environments to accommodate diverse needs.

Within special education centres, parental involvement may be particularly important because these institutions often serve children with complex developmental and educational needs. Teachers and therapists may have limited contact hours with each child, whereas parents interact with their children across many hours and settings. Parents can provide information about behavioural triggers, preferred activities, communication methods, sensory sensitivities and effective reinforcement strategies. Such information can help teachers develop more individualised approaches. Conversely, teachers can equip parents with strategies for strengthening communication, social interaction, self-care and adaptive behaviour at home.

However, parental involvement should not be assumed to be automatically beneficial simply because parents participate. The quality and appropriateness of involvement are important. Parents may lack specialised knowledge of autism intervention, may be uncertain about how to respond to challenging behaviours or may use approaches that are inconsistent with those applied by professionals. Consequently, parent education and teacher-parent collaboration are essential. Parent-mediated interventions tend to be more effective when parents receive structured guidance and have opportunities to practise and receive feedback rather than simply being instructed to participate.

The issue is particularly important in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State, where families of children with ASD may depend on special education centres for specialised educational support. Port Harcourt is a major urban centre with a large and diverse population, and its educational environment includes public, private and specialised institutions serving children with different developmental needs. Nevertheless, the availability of an educational placement does not necessarily guarantee satisfactory social adjustment. A child may attend a special education centre regularly while continuing to experience difficulties with peer interaction, communication, self-regulation and participation outside the classroom.

There is therefore a need to examine whether and how parental involvement is associated with the social adjustment of children with ASD in special education settings in Port Harcourt City. Existing literature provides considerable evidence from international studies concerning parent-mediated interventions, but relatively fewer studies have specifically examined parental involvement and social adjustment among children with ASD within Nigerian special education centres. The Nigerian evidence that does exist has often focused on caregiver burden, prevalence, diagnosis, stigma or general educational challenges rather than specifically testing the relationship between parental involvement and children’s social adjustment.

This gap is important because social adjustment represents a practical outcome that is highly relevant to the daily lives of autistic children. A child who develops improved communication, social interaction, adaptive behaviour and peer participation may experience greater inclusion and independence even when some core characteristics of autism remain. Understanding the contribution of parental involvement can therefore assist special education centres, parents, teachers, counsellors and policymakers in designing interventions that extend beyond classroom instruction.

The present study consequently focuses on Parental Involvement and Social Adjustment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Study of Selected Special Education Centres in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State. The study seeks to determine the extent to which parental involvement, including communication with teachers, participation in school activities, reinforcement of learning at home, participation in intervention programmes and parental support, relates to the social adjustment of children with ASD.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Autism Spectrum Disorder presents important educational and social challenges for children, families and educational institutions. The difficulties associated with social communication, reciprocal interaction, behavioural flexibility and adaptation can affect children’s ability to participate effectively in school and community activities. Although children with ASD differ substantially in their abilities and support requirements, many require structured and continuous assistance to develop communication, social interaction and adaptive skills. The WHO (2025) recognises that autism can affect social communication and interaction and emphasises the importance of timely evidence-based interventions for improving communication and social skills.

One major problem is that educational intervention may be concentrated within the school environment without sufficient continuity at home. Special education teachers may provide structured lessons and therapeutic activities, but children spend a substantial proportion of their time outside school. If parents are not adequately involved in reinforcing the skills taught at school, opportunities for generalisation may be reduced. For example, a child may be taught to greet others, maintain appropriate interaction, take turns or request assistance at school but may have limited opportunities to practise these behaviours in the home and community environment.

A related problem is inadequate parental knowledge about autism and appropriate strategies for supporting social development. Some parents may understand that their child has developmental difficulties but may not know how to facilitate communication, play and social interaction effectively. Others may rely on advice from relatives, informal sources or culturally based explanations of autism rather than evidence-based educational and behavioural approaches. Where parents lack adequate information, their involvement may become inconsistent or may fail to complement the intervention strategies being used by professionals.

The Nigerian context can intensify this problem. Azubuike et al. (2024) found that caregivers of children with ASD in Nigeria experienced difficulties that included fear, emotional distress, social stigma, limited support and challenges in accessing appropriate educational and therapeutic services. The researchers further reported that caregivers sometimes experienced misunderstanding and inadequate acceptance from members of their extended families and communities. Such circumstances can influence the willingness and capacity of parents to participate actively in their children’s educational and social development.

Another problem concerns stigma and misconceptions about autism. When parents or members of the community interpret autism through negative or inaccurate beliefs, children may be excluded from social activities or protected excessively from interaction with others. Such responses may unintentionally reduce opportunities for social learning. Azubuike et al. (2024) reported that stigma and misconceptions about autism were significant experiences among Nigerian caregivers and were associated with isolation and difficulties in social relationships. If these conditions persist, children may have fewer opportunities to interact with peers and practise socially appropriate behaviours.

There is also the problem of insufficient family-school collaboration. Effective education for children with ASD requires communication between parents and teachers because each group possesses information that the other may not have. Teachers observe children’s behaviour within structured learning environments, while parents observe them across home and community settings. Where communication between these groups is weak, important information about children’s strengths, difficulties, behavioural triggers and progress may not be shared. This can make intervention less consistent.

Furthermore, parents may face practical constraints that make sustained involvement difficult. Employment obligations, financial pressures, transportation costs, multiple family responsibilities and the cost of specialised services can reduce the amount of time and resources parents can devote to school-related activities. Parent-mediated intervention research also indicates that access, time, resources and other contextual factors can influence whether families are able to participate consistently in interventions (Althoff et al., 2019; Oono et al., 2013).

The burden associated with caring for a child with ASD can also affect parental participation. Parents may experience stress, uncertainty and emotional difficulties, particularly when the child’s needs are extensive and support services are limited. Azubuike et al. (2024) found that Nigerian caregivers experienced emotional distress and challenges in balancing caregiving responsibilities with work and other household obligations. Such circumstances may make consistent involvement in school activities difficult, even when parents genuinely desire to support their children.

Another concern is that parental involvement may differ considerably from one family to another. Some parents may attend school meetings, communicate regularly with teachers, participate in intervention programmes and practise social skills at home, whereas others may have little contact with the school beyond dropping off and collecting their children. Differences in socioeconomic circumstances, education, knowledge, family structure, cultural beliefs and access to information may contribute to variations in parental participation. Consequently, it is necessary to examine parental involvement empirically rather than assuming that all parents participate in similar ways.

The social adjustment of children with ASD is itself a significant concern. Difficulties in communication and social interaction can result in limited peer relationships, social withdrawal, behavioural problems and difficulty participating in group activities. If these difficulties are not adequately addressed, children may experience exclusion within and outside educational environments. Since social adjustment influences children’s participation, relationships and independence, failure to support it may have consequences extending beyond the immediate school years.

Although parent-mediated interventions have demonstrated promising outcomes internationally, the evidence cannot automatically be generalised to every Nigerian educational context. Deniz et al. (2024) found that parent-mediated play-based interventions were associated with improvements in social communication and language among preschool children with autism, while other systematic reviews have reported improvements in joint attention, communication, adaptive behaviour and social skills. However, intervention effectiveness can be influenced by cultural, economic, institutional and family circumstances. The need therefore exists for studies situated within specific Nigerian educational environments.

There is also a geographical research gap. Nigerian studies have examined autism from several perspectives, including diagnosis, prevalence, caregiver experiences and service challenges. For example, Bakare et al. (2014) documented diagnostic and clinical challenges among Nigerian children with autism, while Azubuike et al. (2024) examined caregiver experiences and unmet needs in Cross River State. However, there remains a need for empirical research specifically examining the relationship between parental involvement and social adjustment among children with ASD attending special education centres in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State.

The absence of adequate local evidence creates difficulty for educational administrators, special educators, counsellors and parents who need context-specific information about how family participation may contribute to children’s social outcomes. Without such evidence, parental involvement may remain largely informal and dependent on individual family circumstances rather than being deliberately incorporated into educational planning.

The problem, therefore, is not merely whether parents are involved in the education of children with ASD, but whether the nature and extent of their involvement are associated with improved social adjustment. It is necessary to determine whether communication with teachers, participation in school activities, reinforcement of learning at home, participation in intervention programmes and parental emotional support contribute to children’s ability to interact, communicate, participate and adapt socially.

It is against this background that this study investigates Parental Involvement and Social Adjustment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Selected Special Education Centres in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State. The study is intended to provide empirical evidence that can help strengthen home-school partnerships and improve social outcomes for children with ASD.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between parental involvement and the social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in selected special education centres in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. determine the extent of parental involvement in the education of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in selected special education centres in Port Harcourt City;
2. examine the extent to which parental communication with teachers relates to the social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder;
3. determine the relationship between parents’ reinforcement of learning and social adjustment among children with Autism Spectrum Disorder;
4. examine the relationship between parents’ participation in school-based intervention programmes and the social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder;

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What is the extent of parental involvement in the education of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in selected special education centres in Port Harcourt City?
2. To what extent does parental communication with teachers relate to the social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder?
3. What relationship exists between parents’ reinforcement of learning and the social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder?
4. What relationship exists between parents’ participation in school-based intervention programmes and the social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between parental involvement and the social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in selected special education centres in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to parents and caregivers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. The findings will provide parents with greater understanding of the importance of active participation in their children’s educational and social development. The study may help parents recognise that their role extends beyond meeting basic physical needs to include communication with teachers, reinforcement of social skills, participation in intervention programmes and provision of emotional support.

The study will also be significant to teachers and special educators. Findings may help teachers understand the importance of establishing effective partnerships with parents of children with ASD. The study may encourage teachers to communicate regularly with parents, provide practical guidance on home-based activities and involve parents in the development and monitoring of intervention strategies.

Special education centres and school administrators may benefit from the findings. The study may provide evidence for developing structured parent-school partnership programmes, parent education sessions, counselling programmes and communication mechanisms that encourage meaningful parental participation. Such programmes may strengthen continuity between educational intervention and children’s home environments.

Educational psychologists, counsellors and other professionals working with children with ASD may also benefit from the study. The findings may help professionals understand the family-related factors that influence children’s social adjustment and may encourage them to incorporate parents into intervention and counselling programmes. Parent counselling may help families cope with stress, stigma and uncertainty while developing practical strategies for supporting their children.

The study will be useful to policymakers and education authorities in Rivers State. Evidence from the study may contribute to the development of policies and programmes that promote family participation in special education. Since disability-inclusive education requires cooperation among schools, families, communities and government agencies, information concerning parental participation may assist policymakers in designing more responsive support systems.

The study will also benefit children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Although the children may not directly participate in all aspects of the research, improved parental involvement may contribute to better communication, social interaction, adaptive behaviour and participation. Strengthening home-school collaboration may therefore create more consistent opportunities for children to practise social skills across different environments.

The study may further benefit parents and communities by contributing to greater awareness about autism. Increased understanding of autism can help reduce misconceptions and stigma and encourage more supportive attitudes towards autistic children. This is particularly relevant in contexts where families may experience misunderstanding or social isolation.

Finally, the study will serve as a useful reference for researchers and students in special education, educational psychology, guidance and counselling, psychology, sociology and related disciplines. It may also provide a basis for future studies on parental involvement, autism, social adjustment, inclusive education and family-school partnerships in Rivers State and other parts of Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study is geographically delimited to selected special education centres in Port Harcourt City Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria.

The content scope of the study focuses on parental involvement as the independent variable and social adjustment of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder as the dependent variable.

Parental involvement will be examined in terms of:

• parental communication with teachers;
• participation in school activities;
• reinforcement of learning and social skills at home;
• participation in intervention programmes; and
• parental emotional and motivational support.

Social adjustment will be considered in relation to:

• communication and interaction with others;
• peer relationships;
• participation in group activities;
• social behaviour;
• adaptability to routines and changes; and
• general participation in school and social environments.

The study will focus specifically on children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder who attend the selected special education centres. Parents/caregivers and relevant educational personnel may constitute the respondents, depending on the sampling and research design adopted in subsequent chapters.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A neurodevelopmental condition characterised by persistent differences in social communication and interaction together with restricted, repetitive or inflexible patterns of behaviour, interests or activities.

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Children diagnosed with ASD who are enrolled in the selected special education centres covered by this study.

Parental Involvement: The active participation of parents or primary caregivers in activities and practices intended to support the educational, behavioural, emotional, communicative and social development of their children with ASD.

Parental Communication: The exchange of relevant information between parents and teachers concerning the child’s educational progress, behaviour, social development, needs and intervention.

School Participation: Parents’ involvement in school-related activities such as meetings, educational planning, consultations, programmes and other activities organised to support their children’s development.

Home Reinforcement: The practice of parents supporting and practising educational, communication, behavioural and social skills taught to the child within the home environment.

Parental Emotional Support: The provision of encouragement, acceptance, affection, reassurance, patience and psychological support by parents to children with ASD.

Social Adjustment: The ability of a child with ASD to interact with other people, communicate needs, establish relationships, participate in activities, respond appropriately to social expectations and adapt to different social environments.

Special Education Centre: An educational institution established or designated to provide specialised educational services, intervention and support to children with disabilities or developmental needs.

Parent-Mediated Intervention: An intervention approach in which parents are trained or guided to implement developmental, behavioural, communication or social strategies with their children.

Peer Relationship: The social connection and interaction that a child establishes with other children, including communication, cooperation, sharing, turn-taking and participation in joint activities.

Home-School Partnership: A collaborative relationship between parents/caregivers and educational personnel aimed at promoting continuity and effectiveness in the education and development of a child.

Project – Parental Involvement and Social Adjustment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Study of Selected Special Education Centres in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State