Project – Academic Procrastination and Learning Engagement among Undergraduate Students: A Study of Students of the University of Lagos

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Higher education plays an important role in developing the intellectual, professional and social capacities of individuals and in preparing graduates to contribute meaningfully to national development. Universities provide students with opportunities to acquire knowledge, develop professional competencies, engage in research and cultivate independent learning habits. However, successful university education depends not only on the availability of academic resources but also on the extent to which students actively participate in the learning process. Students are expected to attend lectures, study independently, complete assignments, participate in academic discussions, prepare for examinations and manage competing academic and personal responsibilities. The extent to which students actively invest time, effort and attention in these activities is closely related to learning engagement.

Learning engagement is a multidimensional concept involving students’ behavioural, emotional and cognitive involvement in learning activities. Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris (2004) explain that engagement encompasses behavioural participation, emotional reactions to learning and cognitive investment in understanding complex ideas. Although their review was initially framed around school engagement, the conceptualisation has had broad relevance to research on student participation in educational settings. In higher education, engagement similarly concerns how students behave, think and feel in relation to their academic experiences. Kahu (2013) argues that student engagement is an important influence on learning and achievement in higher education and should be understood through behavioural, psychological and sociocultural perspectives.

Learning engagement is particularly important at the undergraduate level because university education requires greater independence than many students experienced at earlier levels of education. Undergraduate students are generally expected to exercise considerable autonomy in determining when and how they study. They are often responsible for managing lecture schedules, assignments, tests, projects, examinations and personal commitments with comparatively less direct supervision. This freedom can encourage independent learning, but it can also create opportunities for students to postpone academic responsibilities. Consequently, academic procrastination has become an important behavioural issue in higher education.

Academic procrastination refers to the voluntary and unnecessary delay of an intended academic task despite anticipating that the delay may result in negative consequences. Steel (2007) describes procrastination as a form of self-regulatory failure in which an individual unnecessarily delays an intended course of action. His meta-analytic review identified factors such as task aversiveness, delay before consequences, self-efficacy, impulsiveness and aspects of conscientiousness as important correlates of procrastination.

Academic procrastination can take different forms among undergraduate students. A student may postpone reading assigned materials until shortly before an examination, delay starting an assignment despite having sufficient time, avoid a difficult academic task, repeatedly defer project work or spend substantial time on less important activities while an academic responsibility remains unfinished. Such behaviour does not necessarily mean that the student lacks academic ability. Rather, it may reflect difficulties in self-regulation, time management, motivation, emotional control or prioritisation.

The university environment can create conditions in which procrastination becomes particularly attractive. Unlike highly structured educational environments, university students may have substantial control over their daily schedules. This autonomy can provide opportunities for productive independent learning, but it may also enable students to delay tasks without immediate external consequences. Steel (2007) argues that procrastination is associated with difficulties in self-regulation and is influenced by the perceived attractiveness and timing of tasks. Tasks that appear unpleasant, difficult or distant from immediate rewards may be more likely to be postponed.

Academic procrastination is therefore more than a simple failure to manage time. It involves the interaction of cognitive, motivational, emotional and behavioural processes. A student may know that an assignment is important but still decide to engage in social activities, entertainment or other less important tasks. The difference between intention and action is central to procrastination. This makes academic procrastination particularly relevant to learning engagement because a student who repeatedly delays academic tasks may have fewer opportunities to participate meaningfully in learning activities.

Learning engagement requires sustained behavioural and cognitive investment. A highly engaged student is likely to attend classes, participate in discussions, devote effort to academic tasks, seek clarification when necessary, interact with lecturers and classmates and reflect deeply on course materials. In contrast, disengaged students may demonstrate irregular attendance, limited participation, superficial learning and reduced effort. Fredricks et al. (2004) emphasise that engagement involves behavioural, emotional and cognitive dimensions, suggesting that participation in learning cannot be adequately understood through attendance alone.

The connection between procrastination and learning engagement can be understood through self-regulation. Self-regulated learning involves students actively setting goals, monitoring their learning, selecting strategies and regulating their behaviour in pursuit of academic objectives. Zimmerman (2002) explains that self-regulated learners are proactive in managing their thoughts, behaviours and motivation to achieve learning goals. When students experience difficulties in regulating their behaviour, they may postpone important academic activities and consequently reduce the amount of time and effort devoted to learning.

Academic procrastination may therefore interfere with students’ opportunities for meaningful learning. When students delay assignments until deadlines are close, they may rush their work rather than engage deeply with the academic material. Similarly, students who postpone studying may engage in last-minute memorisation instead of sustained learning. Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar (2023), in a systematic review of interventions addressing academic procrastination, identified self-regulation as a central dimension in efforts to reduce procrastination and noted the relevance of procrastination to academic performance and learning processes.

Research has also demonstrated that academic procrastination can be associated with students’ emotional experiences. Rahimi, Hall and Sticca (2023) investigated the relationship between academic procrastination and learning-related emotions longitudinally among undergraduate and graduate students. Their study demonstrates that procrastination is not simply an isolated behavioural issue but can be connected with students’ emotional experiences during academic activities.

The relationship between procrastination and engagement is particularly significant because engagement represents a student’s active investment in learning, whereas procrastination involves delaying intended academic actions. A student may have strong academic intentions but still fail to translate those intentions into consistent behaviour. In this sense, procrastination can potentially weaken behavioural engagement, reduce cognitive investment and negatively influence students’ emotional experiences of learning.

Recent research has continued to examine the interaction between academic procrastination and engagement. Liang and Bautista (2025), for example, investigated students’ engagement and academic procrastination in a higher education context and examined whether a negotiated syllabus could influence both constructs. Their study reflects growing interest in understanding procrastination and engagement as related aspects of students’ learning experiences rather than completely separate academic behaviours.

The problem of academic procrastination is not limited to Western or Asian higher education systems. It is also evident among university students in Nigeria. An important Nigerian study by Akinsola, Tella and Tella (2007) examined academic procrastination among university mathematics undergraduates from the University of Ibadan and the University of Lagos. The study involved 150 third- and fourth-year students and investigated the relationship between academic procrastination and mathematics achievement. The study demonstrates that academic procrastination has long been recognised as an issue among Nigerian university students, including students at the University of Lagos.

More recent Nigerian evidence continues to demonstrate the relevance of academic procrastination among university students. Atiri, Israel and Onofuye (2024), researchers affiliated with the University of Lagos, examined sociodemographic correlates of academic procrastination among 250 undergraduates. The study used a cross-sectional survey and assessed procrastination behaviour among university students, further demonstrating that academic procrastination remains a relevant issue within the Nigerian higher education environment.

Digital technology has also introduced additional considerations into students’ academic lives. Nigerian undergraduates increasingly use smartphones, social networking platforms, online entertainment and other digital services alongside academic activities. While digital technologies can support learning, excessive or poorly regulated use may compete with students’ academic responsibilities. Recent Nigerian research has examined social media engagement and academic procrastination among university undergraduates, suggesting that patterns of digital engagement may have implications for students’ tendencies to postpone academic tasks.

Similarly, Gwar, Yimam and Mdooter (2026) examined internet use and sleep quality as predictors of academic procrastination among 220 undergraduate students at the University of Mkar, Nigeria. Their findings indicated a significant relationship between internet use and academic procrastination, with internet use emerging as a significant individual predictor in their regression analysis. Such evidence highlights the importance of considering contemporary behavioural and environmental factors when examining procrastination among Nigerian undergraduates.

The University of Lagos provides a particularly relevant setting for investigating the problem. As a major Nigerian university, the institution brings together students from diverse academic disciplines and social backgrounds. Undergraduate students are expected to manage demanding academic programmes while also navigating social relationships, digital environments, extracurricular activities and personal responsibilities. These circumstances may create differences in the extent to which students remain actively engaged with their academic work.

The learning environment of undergraduate education also requires students to move beyond passive reception of information. Effective learning increasingly involves independent reading, critical thinking, research, group work, practical assignments and continuous assessment. Students who consistently postpone these activities may miss opportunities to build knowledge progressively. Procrastination can therefore affect not only the completion of specific assignments but also the broader quality of students’ learning experiences.

Learning engagement is consequently an important outcome to examine alongside academic procrastination. Kahu (2013) notes that engagement is connected to achievement and learning in higher education and that it is influenced by both individual and contextual factors. This means that students’ engagement should not be considered solely a matter of personal motivation. Institutional practices, teaching approaches, learning environments, relationships and students’ own psychological and behavioural characteristics may all contribute to engagement.

A systematic review by Pereira and Ramos (2021) also identified academic procrastination among university students as a significant research issue. Their review of literature on university students found that procrastination was commonly associated with self-regulation of learning and differences in study strategies between procrastinating and non-procrastinating students.

The persistence of academic procrastination despite students’ awareness of academic consequences makes it an important subject for educational psychology. Students generally understand that completing assignments, studying regularly and participating in academic activities are important for success. Nevertheless, some students continue to postpone these activities. Understanding whether such behaviour is associated with reduced learning engagement may help universities design more effective academic support interventions.

Furthermore, the relationship between academic procrastination and learning engagement may have implications for students’ academic performance and eventual completion of university programmes. A student who consistently delays academic work may experience accumulated academic responsibilities, increased pressure around deadlines and reduced opportunity for reflective learning. Conversely, students who remain engaged may be more likely to distribute academic effort across time and participate consistently in learning activities.

The issue is therefore important for lecturers, academic advisers, counsellors, university administrators and students themselves. Lecturers may benefit from understanding how procrastination manifests in students’ learning behaviour. Academic advisers and counsellors may use such knowledge to identify students who need assistance with time management, self-regulation, motivation and study strategies. University administrators may also use empirical evidence to strengthen student-support services.

Despite the increasing international literature on academic procrastination and student engagement, there remains a need for context-specific studies within Nigerian universities. Existing Nigerian research has examined academic procrastination in relation to mathematics achievement, sociodemographic characteristics, social media use, internet use and other variables. However, comparatively less attention has been directed specifically toward the relationship between academic procrastination and learning engagement among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos.

It is against this background that this study examines Academic Procrastination and Learning Engagement among Undergraduate Students: A Study of Students of the University of Lagos. The study is intended to provide empirical evidence concerning the extent of academic procrastination among undergraduates and its relationship with their engagement in learning.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

University education requires students to take increasing responsibility for their learning. Unlike many earlier educational settings where students receive close supervision from teachers and parents, undergraduate students are generally expected to regulate their own academic activities. They must determine when to read, complete assignments, prepare for examinations, attend classes and engage in independent academic activities. Although this autonomy is an important feature of higher education, it may also create conditions in which academic responsibilities are repeatedly postponed.

Academic procrastination is a concern because students may deliberately delay academic activities despite knowing that such delays could have undesirable consequences. Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a significant form of self-regulatory failure and notes the importance of self-control, task aversiveness, self-efficacy and impulsiveness in understanding the behaviour.

Among undergraduate students, procrastination may appear in relatively ordinary academic behaviours. A student may postpone reading until an examination is approaching, delay starting a term paper, fail to begin a project despite knowing its deadline, repeatedly postpone revision or spend excessive time on activities unrelated to academic priorities. Although an isolated instance of delay may not necessarily be problematic, repeated academic procrastination may become a pattern that interferes with effective learning.

The problem becomes more serious when procrastination affects students’ learning engagement. Engagement requires students to invest attention, effort and psychological energy in learning. Fredricks et al. (2004) conceptualise engagement as multidimensional, involving behavioural, emotional and cognitive components. A student who repeatedly postpones academic activities may therefore experience reduced opportunities for behavioural participation, diminished cognitive investment and potentially less positive emotional involvement in learning.

One major concern is that students may be physically present in the university environment without being meaningfully engaged in learning. Attendance at lectures, for example, does not necessarily indicate that a student is attentive, mentally involved or academically prepared. A student who repeatedly postpones reading and assignments may attend classes but still demonstrate weak cognitive engagement. Kahu (2013) emphasises the importance of distinguishing engagement itself from the factors that influence engagement and from its consequences.

Another problem concerns the consequences of last-minute academic work. When students delay assignments until deadlines are close, they may have insufficient time to research, analyse information, revise drafts and correct errors. The result may be work that reflects hurried completion rather than deep learning. Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar (2023) similarly identify procrastination as a behaviour connected to learning processes and failures of self-regulation.

Academic procrastination may also contribute to increased academic pressure. A student who repeatedly postpones academic work may eventually face several accumulated tasks at the same time. The resulting pressure can make learning more stressful and may encourage students to adopt surface-level strategies such as memorising information shortly before an examination instead of developing sustained understanding.

The Nigerian university environment provides additional reasons for examining this problem. Undergraduate students may have to manage large workloads, multiple courses, continuous assessment activities, examinations and independent study. At the same time, students may engage heavily with social media, entertainment and other digital activities. Recent Nigerian studies indicate that social media and internet-related behaviours can be associated with academic procrastination among undergraduates.

Evidence from the University of Lagos itself makes the problem especially relevant. Akinsola et al. (2007) studied 150 mathematics and mathematics education undergraduates from the University of Ibadan and the University of Lagos and examined academic procrastination in relation to mathematics achievement. The study provides evidence that academic procrastination has been an observable issue among students within the University of Lagos environment.

More recently, Atiri et al. (2024), affiliated with the University of Lagos, investigated sociodemographic correlates of academic procrastination among 250 undergraduates. The existence of this recent University of Lagos-based study further indicates that procrastination remains relevant to undergraduate academic behaviour. However, that study focused on sociodemographic correlates rather than directly examining the relationship between academic procrastination and learning engagement.

This distinction represents an important research gap. Knowing that students procrastinate does not fully explain how such behaviour relates to their participation and involvement in learning. It is therefore necessary to determine whether students who demonstrate higher levels of academic procrastination also demonstrate lower levels of learning engagement.

There is also a conceptual gap in the way academic procrastination is sometimes discussed. Procrastination is often treated mainly as a time-management problem. However, Steel (2007) shows that the phenomenon involves broader self-regulatory processes, while more recent reviews identify psychological, motivational, emotional, personal and contextual dimensions.

Similarly, learning engagement should not be reduced to students’ physical attendance. It encompasses behavioural participation, emotional involvement and cognitive investment. Fredricks et al. (2004) and Kahu (2013) both emphasise the multidimensional nature of engagement.

The problem is therefore not simply that some University of Lagos students may submit assignments late or study close to examination periods. The broader concern is whether repeated postponement of academic activities is associated with a reduced willingness and capacity to participate actively, emotionally and cognitively in learning.

If academic procrastination is significantly related to low learning engagement, universities may need to provide more systematic interventions aimed at improving students’ self-regulation, study planning, time management and academic motivation. Turner and Hodis (2023), for example, found through a systematic review that interventions designed to reduce academic procrastination have increasingly focused on students’ self-regulation and the instructional environment.

The problem is also important because procrastination can become normalised among university students. Students may regard last-minute studying or assignment completion as an ordinary part of university life. However, the normalisation of such behaviour does not mean that it has no educational consequences. Where procrastination becomes persistent, it may interfere with consistent learning, academic preparation and students’ overall educational experience.

There is consequently a need for empirical evidence that is specific to undergraduate students of the University of Lagos. Such evidence can help determine whether academic procrastination is significantly associated with learning engagement and can provide a basis for appropriate academic and counselling interventions.

Therefore, the central problem of this study is the persistence of academic procrastination among undergraduate students and the possibility that such behaviour may be associated with their level of engagement in learning. The study consequently investigates the relationship between academic procrastination and learning engagement among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between academic procrastination and learning engagement among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. determine the level of academic procrastination among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos;
2. determine the level of learning engagement among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos;
3. identify the common forms of academic procrastination experienced by the students;
4. examine the behavioural, emotional and cognitive dimensions of learning engagement among the students

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What is the level of academic procrastination among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos?
2. What is the level of learning engagement among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos?
3. What are the common forms of academic procrastination experienced by the students?
4. What are the behavioural, emotional and cognitive levels of learning engagement among the students?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between academic procrastination and learning engagement among undergraduate students of the University of Lagos.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will be beneficial to undergraduate students because it will increase awareness of the possible academic implications of repeatedly postponing learning activities. Understanding the relationship between procrastination and engagement may encourage students to develop more effective study habits, improve their time management and take greater responsibility for their learning.

The study will be useful to lecturers because it may provide insight into students’ academic behaviours and the possible relationship between procrastination and learning participation. Such knowledge may encourage lecturers to adopt teaching and assessment practices that promote regular participation, continuous learning and timely completion of academic tasks.

The study will also benefit university counsellors and student-support professionals. Findings may assist counsellors in identifying students who demonstrate persistent procrastination and designing interventions focused on self-regulation, motivation, goal-setting, time management and study skills.

For university administrators, the findings may provide evidence for strengthening academic support services, orientation programmes, learning-skills workshops and counselling interventions designed to improve students’ academic engagement.

The study may also be useful to parents and guardians of undergraduate students by providing a better understanding of the behavioural challenges that can affect students’ academic participation. Although university students are largely responsible for their own learning, appropriate encouragement and support may help them develop productive academic habits.

Finally, the study will contribute to the body of knowledge in educational psychology, learning sciences and higher education research. It will provide context-specific evidence on academic procrastination and learning engagement among students of the University of Lagos and may serve as a reference for researchers undertaking related studies.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on Academic Procrastination and Learning Engagement among Undergraduate Students: A Study of Students of the University of Lagos.

The geographical scope of the study is the University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State.

The population of interest comprises undergraduate students of the University of Lagos. The study focuses primarily on two variables: academic procrastination and learning engagement.

Academic procrastination will be examined in terms of students’ tendencies to delay assignments, studying, reading, examination preparation and other academic responsibilities despite intending to complete them. Learning engagement will be examined through its major behavioural, emotional and cognitive dimensions.

The study does not attempt to investigate every factor that may influence students’ academic performance. Variables such as socioeconomic status, personality, family background, lecturer effectiveness, institutional facilities and mental health may be relevant to students’ academic experiences but are outside the primary focus of this study except where they arise in the interpretation of the findings.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Academic Procrastination: The voluntary and unnecessary postponement of academic activities such as studying, reading, assignments, projects and examination preparation despite awareness that the delay may produce negative academic consequences.

Academic Engagement: The extent to which a student actively invests behavioural effort, emotional involvement and cognitive attention in academic activities.

Learning Engagement: The degree of students’ active participation, emotional involvement and cognitive investment in learning activities. The concept is treated as multidimensional, consistent with the engagement literature (Fredricks et al., 2004; Kahu, 2013).

Behavioural Engagement: Students’ observable participation in learning activities, including attendance, participation in class, completion of academic tasks and effort.

Emotional Engagement: Students’ feelings, interests, attitudes and sense of belonging associated with their learning experiences.

Cognitive Engagement: The extent to which students invest mental effort in understanding, analysing and applying academic knowledge rather than merely memorising information.

Undergraduate Student: A student enrolled in a first-degree programme at the University of Lagos who has not yet completed the requirements for an undergraduate degree.

Self-Regulation: The process through which students monitor and control their thoughts, motivation, emotions and behaviours in order to achieve academic goals.

Study Habits: The regular methods and practices adopted by students in reading, studying, revising, completing assignments and preparing for examinations.

University: A higher education institution that provides undergraduate and postgraduate education, research and related academic services.

University of Lagos: A federal university located in Akoka, Lagos State, Nigeria, and the institutional setting of the present study.

Project – Academic Procrastination and Learning Engagement among Undergraduate Students: A Study of Students of the University of Lagos