CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Domestic violence is a significant social and public health concern that affects the safety, dignity and overall well-being of women across different societies. It involves abusive behaviour within domestic or intimate relationships and may take physical, sexual, psychological, emotional or economic forms. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2026) identifies intimate partner violence as including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviours by a current or former intimate partner. Domestic violence should therefore not be understood exclusively in terms of physical assault, because threats, humiliation, intimidation, isolation and other controlling behaviours can also undermine a woman’s sense of security and personal autonomy. The United Nations’ Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women similarly recognises that violence against women includes acts likely to cause physical, sexual or psychological harm, whether occurring in public or private life. These definitions establish the importance of examining domestic violence as a multidimensional problem with consequences extending beyond visible physical injuries (United Nations, 1993; WHO, 2026).

At the global level, violence against women remains a major public health and human rights issue. According to the World Health Organization’s estimates published in 2025, approximately 840 million women and girls, representing about one in three globally, have experienced physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence during their lifetime. These figures demonstrate the extensive reach of violence against women, although they should not be interpreted as the prevalence of every form of domestic violence in every country. The WHO also explains that violence can produce immediate and long-term health consequences, with the severity of harm often increasing when women experience multiple forms of violence or repeated incidents. Domestic violence is consequently relevant not only to criminal justice and social protection but also to public health, mental health services and community development. Understanding its psychological consequences is an important step towards recognising the wider needs of affected women (WHO, 2025, 2026).

One of the major concerns associated with domestic violence is its potential effect on psychological well-being. Psychological well-being encompasses aspects of mental and emotional functioning, including self-esteem, emotional stability, personal autonomy, positive relationships and the ability to cope with everyday challenges. Women exposed to domestic violence may experience fear, persistent worry, sadness, emotional distress, reduced confidence and a diminished sense of control over their lives. The WHO identifies depression, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress symptoms and sleep difficulties among the recognised mental health consequences associated with violence against women. These effects may continue even after an abusive relationship has ended, particularly where women have experienced repeated abuse or lack adequate support. However, the psychological experiences of survivors are not necessarily identical; their circumstances, available support systems and individual coping resources may influence how they experience and respond to violence. This makes it important to investigate psychological well-being as a distinct outcome rather than treating physical injury as the only indicator of harm (WHO, 2012, 2022).

The Nigerian context provides an important setting for examining domestic violence and women’s psychological well-being. The Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2018, conducted by the National Population Commission (NPC) and ICF, reported that 31% of women aged 15–49 had experienced physical violence, while 9% had experienced sexual violence. It also reported that 36% of ever-married women had experienced spousal physical, sexual or emotional violence. These findings indicate that violence against women is a substantial concern in Nigeria, although the figures relate to the survey’s specified populations and forms of violence rather than exclusively to women living in Ikorodu. The survey further documented that many women who experienced physical or sexual violence did not seek help, highlighting the importance of examining the social circumstances surrounding disclosure and support. Such national evidence provides a basis for investigating how women in particular communities experience domestic violence and how those experiences may relate to their psychological well-being (NPC & ICF, 2019).

Research on domestic violence in Nigeria has also examined how family experiences and social circumstances may be associated with intimate partner violence. Solanke (2018), using evidence from the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, investigated the relationship between exposure to interparental violence and women’s risk of experiencing intimate partner violence. The study addressed the possibility that witnessing violence within the family of origin may be associated with later experiences of violence in intimate relationships. This line of research is relevant because domestic violence occurs within wider family and social environments and may be connected to learned behaviours, unequal relationship dynamics and social expectations. Nevertheless, the existence of an association between particular background experiences and violence does not mean that violence is inevitable or that responsibility rests with the survivor. Rather, such research helps identify circumstances that may require attention in prevention, counselling and social support initiatives. It also supports the need for context-specific investigations that consider the experiences of women in their own communities (Solanke, 2018).

The psychological consequences of domestic violence may extend into women’s family, social and economic lives. A woman experiencing persistent abuse may find it difficult to maintain supportive relationships, participate confidently in community activities, concentrate on work or studies, or make decisions concerning her personal circumstances. Fear, shame, stigma and concern about family separation may also influence whether she discloses abuse or seeks assistance. The WHO notes that violence against women can contribute to social isolation, loss of wages, reduced participation in ordinary activities and difficulties in caring for oneself and one’s children. These consequences illustrate how psychological well-being is connected to wider social functioning and access to resources. At the same time, the availability of trusted family members, supportive friends, professional counselling and appropriate services may be important in helping survivors respond to abuse. Investigating psychological well-being therefore requires attention to both the experiences of violence and the social environment in which women live (WHO, 2026).

Ikorodu, in Lagos State, provides a specific community context in which the relationship between domestic violence and women’s psychological well-being can be investigated. Although national research establishes that domestic and intimate partner violence are important concerns in Nigeria, national estimates cannot automatically explain the experiences of women in every local government area or community. Women living in different communities may have varying access to health services, counselling, social support, legal assistance and other resources that may influence their experiences and help-seeking options. It is therefore necessary to examine the issue within selected communities in Ikorodu rather than assume that national findings fully represent the local situation. The present study focuses on the forms of domestic violence experienced by women and their relationship with psychological well-being, including emotional distress, self-esteem and related aspects of mental and social functioning. By generating evidence from the selected communities, the study seeks to contribute to a more context-sensitive understanding of domestic violence and provide information that may assist relevant stakeholders in developing appropriate support and intervention strategies (NPC & ICF, 2019; WHO, 2022, 2026).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Domestic violence remains a concern for women’s safety, dignity and psychological well-being. Although violence is often recognised through physical injuries, psychological and emotional abuse may also have serious consequences. Repeated humiliation, threats, intimidation, coercive control and physical or sexual assault can be associated with fear, anxiety, depressive symptoms, reduced self-esteem and difficulties in maintaining emotional stability. The World Health Organization has identified depression, anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress symptoms among the mental health consequences associated with violence against women. The problem, therefore, extends beyond the immediate occurrence of abuse to include its possible effects on women’s everyday functioning, relationships and quality of life (WHO, 2012, 2022).

In Nigeria, national survey findings indicate that substantial proportions of women have experienced physical, sexual or spousal violence. The 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey reported that 36% of ever-married women had experienced spousal physical, sexual or emotional violence. It also found that more than half of women who had experienced physical or sexual violence had never sought help to stop it. These findings raise concerns about the extent to which women experiencing violence can access assistance and support. However, national statistics do not provide a complete account of the psychological experiences of women in every locality, and the reported prevalence figures should not be assumed to represent the situation in Ikorodu specifically. There is consequently a need for research that examines the issue within the particular communities under investigation (NPC & ICF, 2019).

A further problem concerns the need to understand the relationship between different forms of domestic violence and specific dimensions of psychological well-being. Physical violence, sexual coercion, emotional abuse and controlling behaviour may not be experienced in the same way, and women may encounter more than one form of abuse. The WHO reports that the health consequences of violence can be more severe when different forms of violence occur together or when incidents are repeated. Nevertheless, the psychological experiences of women in selected communities in Ikorodu cannot be established simply by relying on global or national findings. Without examining the local experiences of women, it may be difficult to determine which forms of abuse are commonly reported among the study participants and how these experiences relate to their emotional state, self-esteem and perceived psychological well-being (WHO, 2012, 2026).

The central problem addressed by this study is the need for context-specific evidence on the effect of domestic violence on the psychological well-being of women in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State. While existing Nigerian research and national surveys establish the broader relevance of domestic violence, they do not, by themselves, establish the nature or strength of its relationship with psychological well-being among women in the communities selected for this research. The study will therefore investigate women’s reported experiences of domestic violence, examine the psychological difficulties associated with those experiences and assess the relationship between domestic violence and psychological well-being. The findings are expected to provide evidence that may inform community awareness, counselling, social work practice and support services for women affected by domestic violence (Solanke, 2018; NPC & ICF, 2019; WHO, 2022).

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of domestic violence on the psychological well-being of women in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives are to:

1. Identify the major forms of domestic violence experienced by women in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.
2. Examine the relationship between domestic violence and the emotional well-being of women in the selected communities.
3. Assess the effect of domestic violence on women’s self-esteem and sense of personal autonomy in the selected communities.
4. Examine the relationship between domestic violence and the overall psychological well-being of women in the selected communities.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What are the major forms of domestic violence experienced by women in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State?
2. What is the relationship between domestic violence and the emotional well-being of women in the selected communities?
3. How does domestic violence affect women’s self-esteem and sense of personal autonomy in the selected communities?
4. What is the relationship between domestic violence and the overall psychological well-being of women in the selected communities?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between domestic violence and the psychological well-being of women in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study are expected to be significant to the following groups:

1.6.1 Women and Survivors of Domestic Violence

The study may help improve understanding of the psychological consequences of domestic violence, including emotional distress, diminished self-esteem and reduced personal autonomy. By drawing attention to these experiences, the findings may encourage greater recognition of psychological harm and the importance of seeking appropriate support.

1.6.2 Social Workers and Counsellors

The findings may provide useful information for social workers, counsellors and other professionals who support women experiencing domestic violence. An understanding of the forms of abuse reported and their relationship with psychological well-being may assist these professionals in identifying relevant support needs and developing appropriate counselling and referral approaches.

1.6.3 Government and Policymakers

The study may provide community-level information that could assist policymakers and relevant government agencies in understanding the needs of women affected by domestic violence. The findings may also contribute to discussions concerning public awareness, survivor support, protection services and community-based responses.

1.6.4 Non-Governmental Organisations

Organisations working in the areas of women’s rights, gender-based violence, mental health and community development may find the study useful when planning awareness campaigns, support programmes and interventions for women affected by domestic violence.

1.6.5 Community Leaders and Members

The study may contribute to greater community awareness of the different forms of domestic violence and their possible psychological consequences. It may also encourage community leaders and members to recognise the importance of respectful relationships, survivor protection and access to appropriate support services.

1.6.6 Researchers and Students

The study may serve as a reference for students and researchers in social work, sociology, psychology, public health, gender studies and related disciplines. It may also provide a foundation for further research on domestic violence, women’s mental health and community-based interventions in Lagos State and other parts of Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the effect of domestic violence on the psychological well-being of women in selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

Geographically, the research will be limited to selected communities within Ikorodu. The specific communities will be identified in the research methodology.

The study will examine domestic violence in terms of physical violence, sexual violence, emotional or psychological abuse, and controlling behaviours. It will focus on psychological well-being, particularly emotional well-being, self-esteem, personal autonomy and related aspects of psychological functioning.

The respondents will comprise women who meet the eligibility criteria established for the study. Data will be collected from the selected respondents using the research instrument specified in the methodology.

The study will focus on the experiences and reported psychological well-being of the participants. Its findings will therefore be interpreted within the context of the selected communities and the research design rather than automatically generalised to all women in Ikorodu, Lagos State or Nigeria.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined as they will be used in the research:

Domestic Violence: Any act or pattern of abusive behaviour occurring within a domestic or intimate relationship that causes, or is likely to cause, physical, sexual, emotional or psychological harm to a woman. In this study, it includes physical assault, sexual coercion, emotional abuse, threats, intimidation and controlling behaviours.

Psychological Well-Being: The emotional and psychological condition of a woman, including her emotional stability, self-esteem, sense of autonomy, ability to cope with everyday challenges and general psychological functioning.

Women: Female individuals who meet the study’s eligibility requirements and reside in the selected communities in Ikorodu, Lagos State.

Physical Violence: The use of physical force against a woman in a domestic or intimate relationship, including acts such as hitting, slapping, kicking, pushing or other forms of physical assault.

Sexual Violence: Any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act or sexual behaviour directed against a woman through force, coercion, threats or the absence of freely given consent.

Emotional or Psychological Abuse: Behaviour intended to intimidate, humiliate, threaten, isolate, degrade or undermine a woman’s emotional security and sense of personal worth.

Self-Esteem: A woman’s perception and evaluation of her own worth, value and personal capabilities.

Personal Autonomy: A woman’s perceived ability to make decisions concerning her life, express her preferences and exercise control over personal matters without coercion or intimidation.

Selected Communities: The specific communities within Ikorodu, Lagos State, that will be chosen as the geographical locations for conducting the study.

Effect: In this study, the term refers to the reported influence or relationship of domestic violence with women’s psychological well-being, as examined through the data collected from respondents.