Project – Household Water Storage Practices and the Risk of Waterborne Diseases in Urban Communities: A Study of Selected Households in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Water is indispensable to human survival, health and socioeconomic development. It is required for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene, sanitation and a wide range of domestic activities. However, the health benefits of water depend not only on its availability but also on its microbiological and chemical safety. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2023) identifies microbiological contamination, particularly contamination by human and animal faeces, as one of the greatest threats to drinking-water safety. Contaminated water can transmit diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis A, making access to safe water an important component of disease prevention and health promotion. 

The importance of safe water has also been recognised within the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Sustainable Development Goal 6, which seeks universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water and adequate sanitation. Despite improvements in global water services, substantial inequalities remain between and within countries. WHO and UNICEF (2023) note that access to safely managed drinking-water remains uneven, with disadvantaged urban populations often experiencing inadequate or unreliable water services. Consequently, households may be required to collect water from different sources and store it for periods ranging from several hours to several days. Such storage becomes an important part of household water management and can determine whether water remains safe between collection and consumption. 

Household water storage refers to the temporary keeping of water in containers after collection from a source and before its use for drinking, cooking or other domestic purposes. Common storage facilities include plastic buckets, jerry cans, drums, tanks, clay pots and other containers. Although storage provides households with a reserve of water when supply is intermittent, it can also create opportunities for contamination. WHO (2023) stresses that drinking-water can become contaminated during collection, transportation, storage and handling, even when the original source is considered improved. Therefore, the safety of water at the point of collection does not necessarily guarantee safety at the point of consumption. 

The manner in which water is stored is therefore a significant public-health concern. Containers that are left uncovered may allow dust, insects and other contaminants to enter the water. Similarly, containers that are rarely cleaned may accumulate dirt, sediments and microbial growth. The use of cups, bowls or hands to remove water from storage vessels may introduce microorganisms, particularly when the hands or utensils are contaminated. WHO’s household water treatment and safe-storage guidance emphasises the importance of covered containers, hygienic handling and appropriate household treatment as measures for maintaining drinking-water safety. 

The relationship between household water practices and disease is particularly important because many waterborne diseases are transmitted through faecally contaminated water. According to WHO (2024), diarrhoeal disease is commonly caused by bacterial, viral and parasitic infections and can spread through contaminated food and drinking-water as well as poor hygiene. Pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Giardia and Cryptosporidium can be associated with contaminated water and may produce illnesses ranging from mild diarrhoea to severe and potentially life-threatening infections. Unsafe domestic water storage and handling are specifically recognised as risk factors for diarrhoeal disease. 

The Nigerian context makes the issue particularly significant. Nigeria continues to experience challenges involving access to safe and reliable water supplies, sanitation and hygiene. Where piped water supplies are unreliable, households frequently depend on boreholes, wells, water vendors, tanker supplies, sachet water and other sources. Water may subsequently be transported and stored within households. Adamu, Andrade and Singleton (2022), using data from 22,571 Nigerian households, found that households using unimproved water sources had significantly higher odds of reporting diarrhoea than households using improved sources after controlling for important household and sociodemographic characteristics. Their findings demonstrate that household water conditions have important implications for disease prevention in Nigeria. 

However, focusing exclusively on the original source of water may overlook an important stage in the transmission pathway: what happens to water after it enters the household. Water collected from a relatively safe source can be contaminated through poor transportation, storage and handling practices. Okpasuo, Aguzie, Anunobi and Okafor (2020), in a study conducted in Enugu State, Nigeria, found substantial levels of waterborne infections among sampled participants and reported that household water choices were vulnerable to contamination at different points between source and consumption. Their study identified poor sanitary practices as an important determinant of waterborne infection and recommended household water treatment and good water-storage practices as part of efforts to reduce infection. 

The findings of Okpasuo et al. (2020) are particularly relevant because they demonstrate that waterborne disease prevention requires more than improving the physical source of water. In their study, 344 of 403 sampled individuals tested positive for at least one waterborne pathogen, including E. coli, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysentery and Cryptosporidium. The study therefore illustrates how household water choices, hygiene and sanitation practices can interact to influence infection risks. 

Household water treatment is another factor closely connected with storage practices. Treatment methods such as boiling, chlorination and filtration can reduce microbial contamination when properly applied. A Nigerian study based on the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey found that household water treatment adoption was relatively low and varied according to socioeconomic and environmental characteristics. Boiling was among the commonly used methods, while education, household wealth and access to electricity were associated with the likelihood of adopting household water treatment (Akinyemi et al., 2021). These findings suggest that knowledge alone may not determine household water safety; economic resources, infrastructure and availability of appropriate treatment options also matter. 

Water storage practices may therefore vary according to household socioeconomic circumstances. Wealthier households may have access to larger storage tanks, treated water, refrigerators, filtration systems or commercially packaged drinking water, while poorer households may rely more heavily on containers that are repeatedly reused. Differences in household facilities may influence the frequency of container cleaning, the type of storage vessel used and the extent to which water is protected from external contamination. Such differences make household water storage a social as well as environmental health issue (Akinyemi et al., 2021). 

Urban communities face particular challenges because rapid population growth can place pressure on existing water infrastructure. Urban households may experience intermittent municipal supplies and consequently develop coping strategies such as purchasing water, collecting water when available and storing large quantities for later use. While these strategies help households cope with unreliable supply, prolonged storage can increase opportunities for contamination if containers are not properly cleaned, covered and handled. WHO (2023) notes that inadequate water services and inequalities in access can expose urban populations to preventable health risks. 

Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State provides a relevant setting for examining this issue because it is an urban and densely populated part of Ilorin with diverse residential, commercial and institutional activities. Households within the area may obtain water from different sources depending on availability, cost and reliability. In situations where water is not continuously available, storage becomes a routine household practice. The public-health significance of this practice lies in whether households use clean and covered containers, clean storage vessels regularly, avoid hand contact with stored water, and treat water before consumption.

The potential health consequences of unsafe household water storage are considerable. Waterborne diseases can result in repeated episodes of diarrhoea, typhoid-like illnesses, intestinal infections and other health problems. Diarrhoea is particularly important because of its effects on children and other vulnerable populations. WHO (2024) reports that diarrhoeal disease remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality among young children and emphasises safe drinking-water, sanitation and hand hygiene as essential preventive measures. 

At the same time, it would be inappropriate to assume that every household that stores water improperly will necessarily develop a waterborne disease. Disease transmission is influenced by several interacting factors, including the quality of the original water source, sanitation, personal hygiene, household characteristics, food hygiene, environmental conditions and individual susceptibility. Consequently, the present study does not simply assume a causal relationship between storage and disease; rather, it seeks to investigate whether particular household water-storage practices are associated with increased risk of waterborne diseases among selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area.

Recent Nigerian evidence further supports the need for household-level investigation. Diala et al. (2025) examined household water-storage practices and microbial contamination in South-East Nigeria and reported that storage practices could contribute to microbial contamination, particularly where containers were inadequately cleaned or covered. The study reinforces the argument that water safety should be considered across the entire chain from water source to household consumption rather than only at the point where water is collected. 

Despite the growing literature on water sources, sanitation and waterborne diseases in Nigeria, there remains a need for location-specific studies examining household storage behaviour in urban communities. National-level studies can establish broad patterns, but they may not adequately explain how households in a particular urban local government area obtain, store, treat and use water. Similarly, studies conducted in other Nigerian states cannot automatically be generalised to households in Ilorin West because differences in infrastructure, socioeconomic conditions, water availability and household practices may influence disease risk. This study therefore focuses specifically on selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara State.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Access to safe water is fundamental to public health, yet the availability of water does not necessarily mean that the water consumed by households is safe. Water may become contaminated after collection through transportation, storage and handling. The problem is particularly important in urban environments where households may depend on intermittent or alternative water supplies and therefore store water for extended periods. WHO (2023) recognises household water treatment and safe storage as important interventions for reducing exposure to contaminated drinking-water and diarrhoeal disease. 

One major problem is the possibility of microbial contamination during household storage. Water kept in uncovered containers may be exposed to dust, insects, dirty utensils and other environmental contaminants. Similarly, storage containers that are not regularly cleaned may accumulate microorganisms and organic matter. When households repeatedly dip cups, bowls or hands into stored water, microorganisms can be transferred into the water. These practices may be particularly dangerous when the stored water is intended for direct drinking without further treatment.

Another problem concerns the duration of storage. Although storing water is often a practical response to unreliable water supply, water that remains in containers for extended periods may be exposed to repeated handling and environmental contamination. Where households do not practise regular container cleaning or safe water withdrawal, the quality of stored water may progressively deteriorate. Thus, water that was relatively safe when collected may not remain equally safe when eventually consumed.

The problem is compounded by inadequate household water treatment. Evidence from Nigeria indicates that household water treatment is not universally practised. Akinyemi et al. (2021) reported low adoption of household water treatment among Nigerian households and identified socioeconomic and environmental disparities in its use. Where water is stored without subsequent treatment, any contamination introduced during collection, transportation or storage may remain present until consumption. 

There is also evidence linking household water conditions with diarrhoeal disease in Nigeria. Adamu et al. (2022) found that use of unimproved water sources was associated with greater odds of diarrhoea among Nigerian households. Their findings demonstrate that water-related household conditions can have measurable health consequences. However, the study primarily examined the type of water source rather than the detailed storage behaviours that occur after water reaches the household. 

Similarly, Okpasuo et al. (2020) demonstrated the importance of household water choices, hygiene and sanitation in relation to waterborne infections in Enugu State. Their findings showed that waterborne pathogens were present among a substantial proportion of the sampled population and that poor sanitary practices substantially increased infection risk. Nevertheless, geographical differences mean that findings from Enugu cannot simply be transferred to Ilorin West without local empirical investigation. 

The specific problem in Ilorin West Local Government Area is therefore the insufficient empirical understanding of how households store water and the extent to which these practices may be associated with waterborne disease risks. Questions remain concerning the types of containers used, whether storage vessels are covered, how frequently they are cleaned, how water is removed from containers, the duration of storage, whether stored water is treated before consumption, and whether households report illnesses associated with unsafe water. Without such information, health-education interventions may fail to address the actual behaviours responsible for contamination.

Furthermore, households may possess knowledge about safe water but fail to translate that knowledge into consistent practices because of economic constraints, water scarcity, limited infrastructure or convenience. It is therefore necessary to investigate actual household practices rather than assuming that awareness automatically results in safe storage. A study of selected households in Ilorin West can provide evidence on the relationship between storage practices and the perceived or reported risk of waterborne diseases within the local context.

The central concern of this study is consequently to determine whether household water-storage practices are associated with the risk of waterborne diseases among selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara State. Establishing this relationship may provide useful evidence for health educators, environmental-health practitioners, households, local authorities and other stakeholders involved in water, sanitation and hygiene programmes.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to examine household water-storage practices and their relationship with the risk of waterborne diseases among selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara State.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the major sources of domestic water used by selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area;
2. assess the water-storage practices adopted by selected households;
3. determine the extent to which households practise safe storage measures such as covering, cleaning and hygienic withdrawal of stored water;
4. examine the prevalence of reported waterborne diseases among members of selected households

1.5 Research Questions

The study will answer the following questions:

1. What are the major sources of domestic water used by selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area?
2. What water-storage practices are commonly adopted by selected households?
3. To what extent do households practise safe storage measures?
4. What waterborne diseases are commonly reported among members of the selected households?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

H₀: There is no significant relationship between household water-storage practices and the risk of waterborne diseases among selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara State.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study will be significant to households because it will provide information on practical ways of protecting stored water from contamination. Findings may encourage households to use appropriate storage containers, clean containers regularly, keep them covered and adopt hygienic methods of withdrawing water.

The study will also be useful to public-health practitioners and environmental-health officers. Evidence concerning household storage behaviours may assist in designing targeted health-education campaigns on water safety, sanitation and hygiene.

Local government authorities and policymakers may benefit from the findings by gaining evidence that can support interventions directed at household water safety, water supply reliability and community health promotion. The findings may also assist organisations implementing water, sanitation and hygiene programmes in identifying behavioural practices requiring attention.

Academically, the study will contribute to the literature on household water management and waterborne diseases in Nigeria. It may also serve as a reference for future researchers interested in water quality, environmental health, sanitation, hygiene and disease prevention, particularly in urban communities.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on household water-storage practices and their relationship with the risk of waterborne diseases among selected households in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara State. The study will examine sources of household water, types of storage containers, cleaning frequency, covering of containers, duration of storage, methods of water withdrawal, household water treatment and selected indicators of waterborne disease. The study will be limited to selected households within Ilorin West Local Government Area and will not attempt to generalise its findings to every household in Kwara State.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Household Water: Water obtained and used by a household for drinking, cooking, cleaning, bathing and other domestic activities.

Water Storage: The practice of keeping collected water in containers for subsequent household use.

Household Water-Storage Practices: The behaviours and procedures households employ in collecting, storing, protecting, treating and withdrawing stored water.

Safe Water Storage: Storage practices that minimise the possibility of contamination, including the use of clean and covered containers and hygienic methods of withdrawing water.

Waterborne Diseases: Diseases that can be transmitted through contaminated water, including diarrhoeal diseases, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and certain parasitic infections.

Household Water Treatment: Processes carried out at household level to improve the microbiological safety of water before consumption, including boiling, filtration and chlorination.

Risk: The likelihood or possibility that household water practices may contribute to exposure to disease-causing organisms.

Urban Community: A relatively densely populated settlement characterised by substantial residential, commercial and institutional activities.

Ilorin West Local Government Area: A local government area within Kwara State, Nigeria, forming part of the Ilorin urban area and serving as the geographical setting of this study.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

The study will be organised into five chapters. Chapter One presents the introduction, including the background of the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, hypothesis, significance, scope and operational definitions. Chapter Two will review relevant conceptual, theoretical and empirical literature relating to household water storage, water quality, sanitation, hygiene and waterborne diseases. Chapter Three will present the research methodology, including the research design, study population, sample size, sampling procedure, instrument for data collection, validity, reliability and methods of data analysis. Chapter Four will present and analyse the data obtained from respondents. Chapter Five will provide the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations.

Project – Household Water Storage Practices and the Risk of Waterborne Diseases in Urban Communities: A Study of Selected Households in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara State