Project – The Role of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) in Promoting Electoral Credibility in Nigeria: A Case Study of the 2023 General Elections in Lagos State.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

TOPIC: THE ROLE OF THE BIMODAL VOTER ACCREDITATION SYSTEM (BVAS) IN PROMOTING ELECTORAL CREDIBILITY IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF THE 2023 GENERAL ELECTIONS IN LAGOS STATE

1.1 Background to the Study

Elections constitute one of the most important instruments through which democratic societies establish legitimate governments and ensure political representation. In democratic systems, elections provide citizens with the opportunity to choose their political leaders, determine the direction of public policies and hold elected officials accountable for their actions. The credibility of an election is therefore essential to the survival and consolidation of democracy because it determines whether electoral outcomes genuinely reflect the choices of voters. Electoral credibility involves the extent to which an election is conducted in a transparent, free, fair, accountable and legally acceptable manner. It also requires that eligible voters are properly identified, votes are accurately counted, results are transparently managed and electoral disputes are addressed through established legal procedures. According to Norris (2014), electoral integrity concerns the application of internationally recognised democratic principles to all stages of the electoral process, from the establishment of electoral laws to the final declaration of results. Similarly, Birch (2011) explained that electoral malpractice and institutional weaknesses can undermine the legitimacy of elections and weaken public confidence in democratic institutions. In Nigeria, the credibility of elections has remained a major concern because of recurring allegations of vote buying, ballot manipulation, multiple voting, electoral violence, intimidation and irregularities in the collation and announcement of results. These challenges have encouraged successive electoral reforms aimed at strengthening the electoral process and improving public confidence in democratic governance. Consequently, the introduction of technological innovations, particularly the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS), represents an important development in Nigeria’s efforts to improve electoral credibility (Birch, 2011; Norris, 2014).

The Bimodal Voter Accreditation System is an electronic electoral technology introduced by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to improve voter accreditation and strengthen the integrity of the voting process. The system is described as bimodal because it uses two biometric methods, fingerprint and facial recognition, to verify the identity of registered voters before they are permitted to vote. Its introduction was intended to address weaknesses associated with previous voter accreditation methods, particularly the Smart Card Reader used in earlier Nigerian elections. Through biometric verification, BVAS helps to establish whether a person presenting a Permanent Voter Card (PVC) is the legitimate registered voter assigned to a particular polling unit. This process is important because it reduces opportunities for impersonation, multiple voting and other forms of accreditation-related electoral malpractice. The Electoral Act 2022 provided a legal foundation for the deployment of technological devices in voter accreditation and electronic management of electoral processes. Section 47(2) of the Act specifically requires the Commission to adopt technological devices for accreditation, while Section 47(3) addresses the procedure to be followed where the prescribed technology fails. Ayeni and Aweh (2024) explained that BVAS combines biometric voter verification with the electronic handling of polling-unit result forms, thereby representing an important advancement in Nigeria’s electoral administration. Ugbudu (2025) similarly examined the contribution of BVAS to the 2023 general elections and identified its potential to reduce electoral fraud and improve the credibility of the voting process. Thus, BVAS was introduced as an institutional and technological measure to strengthen voter identification, reduce accreditation irregularities and promote greater confidence in Nigeria’s electoral system (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2022; Ayeni & Aweh, 2024; Ugbudu, 2025).

The relationship between electoral technology and electoral credibility has become increasingly important because technological innovations can improve the accuracy, transparency, efficiency and accountability of election administration. Before the introduction of BVAS, Nigeria’s electoral process experienced several challenges associated with manual accreditation, including difficulties in verifying voters’ identities and preventing unauthorised participation in elections. Although the Smart Card Reader represented an important technological improvement during the 2015 and 2019 general elections, concerns remained regarding its operational limitations and effectiveness in preventing certain forms of electoral malpractice. BVAS was subsequently introduced to provide a more comprehensive biometric accreditation mechanism through fingerprint and facial authentication. Beyond voter accreditation, the device is also used to capture and upload polling-unit result forms to the INEC Result Viewing Portal (IReV), providing an additional transparency mechanism through which members of the public can view polling-unit results. It is important, however, to distinguish the functions of BVAS from those of IReV: BVAS facilitates accreditation and the scanning and uploading of result forms, while IReV serves as the public viewing platform for uploaded results. The European Union Election Observation Mission (EU EOM, 2023) observed that the introduction of BVAS and IReV was intended to minimise electoral manipulation and strengthen public confidence through biometric verification and greater transparency in result management. Similarly, Ayeni and Aweh (2024) identified the potential of BVAS to improve voter accreditation and strengthen electoral administration. These developments demonstrate that technology can contribute to electoral credibility when supported by effective implementation, reliable infrastructure, adequate personnel training and transparent institutional procedures (EU EOM, 2023; Ayeni & Aweh, 2024).

In Nigeria, the adoption of BVAS became particularly significant during the 2023 general elections, which were conducted against the background of considerable public expectations for improved electoral transparency and credibility. The elections were held on 25 February 2023 for the presidential and National Assembly positions and on 18 March 2023 for governorship and State House of Assembly positions in most states. The introduction of BVAS generated expectations that biometric accreditation would reduce multiple voting, impersonation and other forms of electoral malpractice, while the associated IReV platform would improve public access to polling-unit results. These expectations were reinforced by the provisions of the Electoral Act 2022, which strengthened the legal basis for the use of technology in election administration. However, the actual performance of the technology during the elections attracted considerable public attention because of reported technical difficulties, delayed result uploads, communication problems and logistical challenges. The European Union Election Observation Mission (2023) reported that the implementation of election technology and the failure to promptly upload presidential election results to IReV contributed to declining public trust in the credibility of the electoral process. The National Democratic Institute and International Republican Institute (NDI & IRI, 2023) also observed that although the 2023 elections recorded some improvements in electoral administration, significant logistical, technological and communication failures undermined public expectations. These observations demonstrate that the introduction of electoral technology does not automatically guarantee credible elections; rather, its effectiveness depends on the quality of deployment, institutional preparedness and the ability of electoral authorities to address operational challenges (EU EOM, 2023; NDI & IRI, 2023).

Electoral credibility is also closely connected to public trust, political participation and the legitimacy of elected governments. When citizens believe that elections are conducted transparently and that their votes are properly accounted for, they are more likely to accept electoral outcomes and participate in subsequent democratic activities. Conversely, when electoral processes are characterised by technological failures, manipulation allegations, delayed communication and questionable result management, public confidence may decline, even where certain stages of the election have been successfully conducted. BVAS was expected to strengthen public trust by providing a more reliable mechanism for voter authentication and reducing opportunities for unauthorised voting. Its use was also expected to improve accountability by creating electronic records of accredited voters and facilitating the public viewing of polling-unit result forms through IReV. However, the experience of the 2023 elections raised questions about whether these technological innovations achieved their intended objectives across all stages of the electoral process. Abumbe and Owa (2024), in their assessment of democracy and electoral integrity during the 2023 general elections, identified the importance of electoral technology while highlighting operational weaknesses, violence, intimidation and transparency challenges that affected the electoral process. Similarly, Olonite, Chidiebere and Agbailu (2023) examined public opinion and electoral integrity in relation to the adoption of BVAS and IReV, demonstrating the importance of public confidence in the successful implementation of electoral reforms. Therefore, assessing BVAS requires examining not only its technical ability to verify voters but also its contribution to transparency, accountability, public trust and acceptance of electoral outcomes (Abumbe & Owa, 2024; Olonite et al., 2023).

Lagos State provides an important geographical context for examining the role of BVAS in promoting electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections because of its political, demographic and electoral significance within Nigeria. As one of the country’s most populous and economically important states, Lagos has a large and politically diverse electorate distributed across different local government areas, urban communities and residential settlements. The state has historically experienced competitive electoral contests involving different political parties, candidates and interest groups. The large electorate and complexity of election administration in Lagos make effective voter accreditation, polling-unit management, result documentation and transparency particularly important. During the 2023 general elections, BVAS was deployed as part of INEC’s technological arrangements for verifying registered voters and facilitating the electronic uploading of polling-unit result forms. Its performance was therefore relevant to the credibility of the presidential, National Assembly, governorship and State House of Assembly elections conducted in the state. The EU EOM (2023) identified differences in the implementation of electoral procedures and technology across locations in Nigeria, demonstrating the importance of examining electoral performance within specific geographical settings. Furthermore, the INEC (2024) report on the 2023 general elections documented the use of BVAS and identified operational experiences, including equipment malfunctions and logistical challenges, across the electoral process. Consequently, Lagos State provides a suitable case study for investigating how BVAS functioned in a politically significant electoral environment and the extent to which its deployment contributed to transparent voter accreditation and credible election administration (EU EOM, 2023; INEC, 2024).

Despite the expectations associated with the introduction of BVAS, its actual contribution to electoral credibility remains an important subject of academic and public debate. While the technology was designed to reduce accreditation-related electoral malpractice and improve transparency, its implementation during the 2023 general elections revealed that technological innovation alone could not eliminate all the challenges affecting Nigeria’s electoral process. Issues relating to network connectivity, device malfunction, inadequate technical preparedness, delays in uploading polling-unit results, human interference, electoral violence and weaknesses in institutional communication continued to attract attention. Ugbudu (2025) argued that BVAS contributed to improving electoral credibility during the 2023 elections but also emphasised the importance of addressing the human and institutional conditions required for its effective operation. Abumbe and Owa (2024) similarly observed that technological innovations were accompanied by operational and transparency challenges that affected electoral integrity. The EU EOM (2023) further noted that the lack of transparency in the implementation of election technology and delays in uploading presidential election results contributed to reduced public trust. These findings suggest that the contribution of BVAS should be assessed in relation to its effectiveness in authenticating voters, preventing accreditation irregularities, improving result transparency and strengthening public confidence. Against this background, this study examines the role of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) in promoting electoral credibility in Nigeria, using the 2023 general elections in Lagos State as a case study.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The credibility of elections remains one of the major challenges confronting democratic governance in Nigeria. Over the years, the country’s electoral process has been affected by various forms of irregularities, including multiple voting, voter impersonation, vote buying, ballot manipulation, electoral violence, intimidation and controversies surrounding the collation and announcement of election results. These challenges have weakened public confidence in electoral institutions and raised questions about whether election outcomes genuinely reflect the choices of voters. Although successive electoral reforms have been introduced to address these problems, the effectiveness of such reforms has not always met public expectations. The introduction of BVAS was therefore regarded as an important step towards addressing accreditation-related electoral malpractice through biometric voter identification and electronic documentation. However, despite the expectations associated with its introduction, concerns remained regarding the extent to which the technology could effectively prevent electoral irregularities and strengthen the credibility of elections. The European Union Election Observation Mission (2023) observed that the 2023 general elections experienced operational and technological challenges that affected public confidence, while the NDI and IRI (2023) identified significant logistical, technological and communication failures that undermined the credibility of the electoral process. This situation raises the need to investigate whether BVAS achieved its intended purpose of improving electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections.

Another major problem concerns the effectiveness of BVAS in preventing voter impersonation, multiple voting and other forms of accreditation-related electoral malpractice. The system was introduced to strengthen voter identification through fingerprint and facial recognition, thereby ensuring that only duly registered voters were accredited before voting. However, the successful performance of this technology depends on the functionality of the devices, the accuracy of biometric information, the competence of electoral officials and the availability of reliable technical support. During the 2023 general elections, reports of device malfunction, accreditation difficulties and operational delays raised concerns about the consistency of BVAS performance across polling units. The INEC (2024) report acknowledged that although BVAS functioned properly in most polling units during the governorship and State House of Assembly elections, there were instances of equipment malfunction and other operational challenges. Similarly, Abumbe and Owa (2024) identified technological and institutional weaknesses that affected the integrity of the 2023 electoral process. These challenges create uncertainty regarding the extent to which BVAS successfully reduced accreditation-related malpractice and whether its implementation was sufficiently reliable to guarantee the credibility of the voting process, particularly in Lagos State.

Furthermore, the failure to achieve timely and transparent electronic uploading of polling-unit result forms during the 2023 general elections created considerable controversy regarding the effectiveness of the technological reforms introduced by INEC. Although BVAS was designed to facilitate the scanning and uploading of polling-unit result forms to the IReV portal, delays and inconsistencies in the availability of presidential election results on the portal generated public concerns about transparency and accountability. This situation raised questions about the extent to which the technology could prevent the manipulation of results during the movement of electoral materials from polling units to collation centres. The EU EOM (2023) reported that the delayed uploading of presidential election result forms to IReV contributed to declining public trust in the electoral process. The NDI and IRI (2023) also identified technological and communication failures as significant weaknesses of the 2023 general elections. Although the biometric accreditation function of BVAS and the result-viewing function of IReV are distinct, their combined operation was expected to strengthen electoral transparency. Consequently, the difficulties encountered during result management created doubts about whether the introduction of BVAS and associated electronic procedures sufficiently improved the transparency and credibility of election results.

The problem is particularly important in Lagos State, where the large electorate, competitive political environment and complexity of election administration make transparent voter accreditation and result management essential. Although BVAS was deployed during the 2023 general elections to improve voter authentication and support the electronic documentation of polling-unit results, the extent of its actual contribution to electoral credibility in the state requires closer examination. Existing studies, such as Ayeni and Aweh (2024), Abumbe and Owa (2024), and Ugbudu (2025), have examined the contribution and limitations of BVAS in Nigeria’s 2023 general elections. However, broader national assessments do not necessarily explain the specific experiences of voters, electoral officials and other stakeholders in Lagos State. In particular, there is a need to establish whether BVAS reduced accreditation-related irregularities, improved transparency in polling-unit result management and strengthened public confidence in the electoral process within the state. The central problem of this study, therefore, is the uncertainty surrounding the actual effectiveness of BVAS in promoting electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State, despite the expectations associated with its introduction. This study seeks to address this problem by examining the role of BVAS in improving voter accreditation, reducing electoral malpractice, promoting transparency and strengthening public confidence in elections.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the role of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) in promoting electoral credibility in Nigeria, using the 2023 general elections in Lagos State as a case study.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Examine the effectiveness of BVAS in promoting accurate voter identification and accreditation during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

2. Assess the contribution of BVAS to reducing voter impersonation, multiple voting and other accreditation-related electoral malpractices during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

3. Examine the role of BVAS and its associated electronic result-uploading process in promoting transparency and accountability in the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

4. Determine the influence of BVAS on public confidence and perceived electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. How effective was BVAS in promoting accurate voter identification and accreditation during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State?

2. To what extent did BVAS contribute to reducing voter impersonation, multiple voting and other accreditation-related electoral malpractices during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State?

3. What role did BVAS and its associated electronic result-uploading process play in promoting transparency and accountability during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State?

4. How did BVAS influence public confidence and perceived electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will guide the study and will be tested at a 0.05 level of significance.

H₀: There is no significant relationship between the use of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) and electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will be significant to the Independent National Electoral Commission, government, political parties, voters, civil society organisations, electoral observers, researchers and students of political science and public administration.

Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC): The study will provide useful information to INEC on the effectiveness of BVAS in improving voter accreditation and promoting electoral credibility. The findings will help the Commission identify operational challenges associated with the deployment of the technology, including equipment malfunction, inadequate technical support, personnel training and difficulties associated with electronic result uploading. It may also assist INEC in developing strategies for improving the reliability and effectiveness of technological innovations in future elections.

Government and Policymakers: The study will provide relevant information to government and policymakers on the importance of electoral technology in strengthening democratic institutions. The findings may guide the development of electoral policies and legislative reforms that promote transparency, accountability and public confidence in Nigeria’s electoral system.

Political Parties and Candidates: The study will help political parties and candidates understand the importance of technological innovations in promoting a transparent and credible electoral process. It may encourage political stakeholders to support electoral reforms and respect established electoral procedures rather than engaging in practices that undermine democratic competition.

Voters and the General Public: The study will increase public awareness of the functions and importance of BVAS in voter accreditation and electoral administration. It will help voters understand how biometric verification can reduce impersonation and multiple voting and how electronic result viewing can promote transparency in election management.

Civil Society Organisations and Election Observers: The findings will provide useful information to organisations involved in electoral monitoring, voter education, democratic accountability and election observation. It may help these organisations identify areas where electoral technology requires improvement and strengthen their monitoring activities during future elections.

Researchers and Students: The study will contribute to existing academic literature on electoral technology, electoral integrity, democratic governance and election administration in Nigeria. It will serve as reference material for students and researchers undertaking further studies on BVAS, electronic voter accreditation, electoral reforms and democratic consolidation.

The Judiciary and Electoral Tribunals: The study may provide useful insights into the importance of technological records and accreditation procedures in promoting electoral transparency and accountability. It may also contribute to discussions concerning the evidential relevance of electronic electoral records in resolving electoral disputes.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study focuses on the role of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) in promoting electoral credibility in Nigeria, using the 2023 general elections in Lagos State as a case study.

Geographical Scope: The study will be restricted to Lagos State, Nigeria. Lagos is selected because of its political significance, large electorate and participation in the 2023 presidential, National Assembly, governorship and State House of Assembly elections.

Content Scope: The study will examine the effectiveness of BVAS in voter identification and accreditation, its contribution to reducing accreditation-related electoral malpractice, its role in promoting transparency and accountability, and its influence on public confidence in electoral credibility.

Temporal Scope: The study will concentrate on the 2023 general elections conducted on 25 February and 18 March 2023, covering the presidential, National Assembly, governorship and State House of Assembly elections.

Population Scope: The study will focus on selected voters, electoral officials and relevant electoral stakeholders who participated in or observed the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS): An electronic device introduced by the Independent National Electoral Commission to authenticate registered voters through fingerprint and facial recognition before voting. It is also used to capture and upload polling-unit result forms to the INEC Result Viewing Portal.

Electoral Credibility: The extent to which an election is conducted transparently, freely, fairly, accurately and in accordance with established electoral laws and democratic principles.

Electoral Integrity: The adherence of an electoral process to accepted standards of fairness, transparency, accountability and democratic participation throughout the stages of election administration.

Voter Accreditation: The process of verifying and confirming the identity and eligibility of registered voters before they are allowed to cast their votes.

Voter Impersonation: An electoral malpractice in which an individual attempts to vote by falsely presenting themselves as another registered voter.

Multiple Voting: The act of voting more than once in an election by an individual or through fraudulent means.

Electronic Result Uploading: The process of electronically capturing and transmitting scanned polling-unit result forms to the INEC Result Viewing Portal for public viewing.

INEC Result Viewing Portal (IReV): An electronic platform established by INEC to provide public access to scanned polling-unit election result forms uploaded through the electoral technology deployed by the Commission.

Electoral Malpractice: Any illegal, fraudulent or unethical activity that interferes with the fairness, transparency and credibility of an electoral process.

Public Confidence: The level of trust and belief that voters and other electoral stakeholders have in the ability of electoral institutions and procedures to conduct credible elections.

2023 General Elections: The Nigerian general elections conducted on 25 February and 18 March 2023 to elect the President, members of the National Assembly, state governors and members of State Houses of Assembly.

Project – The Role of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) in Promoting Electoral Credibility in Nigeria: A Case Study of the 2023 General Elections in Lagos State.