Project – The Impact of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) on the Credibility of Elections in Nigeria: A Case Study of the 2023 General Elections in Lagos State.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Research Topic: The Impact of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) on the Credibility of Elections in Nigeria: A Case Study of the 2023 General Elections in Lagos State

1.1 Background to the Study

Elections are a fundamental feature of democratic governance because they provide citizens with the opportunity to choose their representatives, influence public policy, and hold political leaders accountable. For elections to perform these functions effectively, they must be conducted in a manner that promotes transparency, fairness, inclusiveness, and public confidence in the electoral process. Electoral credibility is therefore an important condition for democratic legitimacy, since citizens are more likely to accept electoral outcomes when they believe that the rules were applied fairly and that votes were properly accounted for. Norris (2014) explains that electoral integrity concerns the observance of internationally recognised principles and standards throughout the electoral cycle, including voter registration, campaigning, voting, counting, and the announcement of results. Similarly, Birch (2011) demonstrates that electoral malpractice can undermine the perceived legitimacy of elections and weaken public confidence in democratic institutions. In Nigeria, concerns about electoral credibility have historically included voter impersonation, multiple voting, manipulation of results, vote buying, violence, and administrative shortcomings. These concerns have encouraged the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to introduce technological measures intended to strengthen electoral administration and improve public confidence in election outcomes (Independent National Electoral Commission [INEC], 2023a). The use of technology in voter accreditation, particularly the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS), must therefore be understood within the broader effort to improve electoral integrity and strengthen democratic governance.

Electoral malpractice can occur at different stages of an election, including voter registration, accreditation, voting, counting, collation, and result declaration. One important challenge in the voting process is establishing that a person presenting to vote is an eligible registered voter and has not already voted in the same election. Traditional manual accreditation procedures may be vulnerable to human error, inconsistent verification practices, and deliberate attempts at impersonation or multiple voting. Electoral technologies have consequently been introduced in several countries to improve the accuracy and reliability of electoral procedures. Norris (2014) identifies the integrity of electoral administration as an important element of credible elections, while Birch (2011) explains that malpractice and weaknesses in electoral procedures can affect both the fairness of elections and the legitimacy of their outcomes. In Nigeria, INEC has adopted technology at different stages of electoral administration, including electronic voter accreditation and the use of electronic devices for managing aspects of the voting process. The BVAS was introduced to verify voters through biometric information, including fingerprint and facial recognition, thereby helping election officials establish the identity of voters before they are permitted to vote (INEC, 2023a). The system was designed to reduce opportunities for impersonation and improve the reliability of voter accreditation, although its practical effectiveness depends on equipment performance, staff competence, network-independent functionality, and adherence to electoral procedures.

The Bimodal Voter Accreditation System represents an important development in Nigeria’s efforts to modernise electoral administration. The term bimodal refers to the system’s use of two biometric methods—fingerprint and facial recognition—to help verify the identity of registered voters. The technology is intended to reduce the risk of unauthorised voting by checking a voter’s biometric characteristics against the information contained in the electoral register. Its introduction also reflects a wider international interest in using technology to strengthen electoral management, improve record accuracy, and reduce opportunities for certain forms of electoral fraud. James and Alihodžić (2020) explain that electoral technology can support electoral integrity when it is appropriately selected, implemented, and supported by adequate institutional arrangements. However, they also emphasise the importance of evaluating technological interventions within their political and administrative contexts rather than assuming that technology automatically produces credible elections. Similarly, Norris (2014) argues that electoral integrity depends on the quality of the entire electoral process, not simply the adoption of particular procedures or devices. Consequently, the significance of BVAS extends beyond its technical ability to authenticate voters; its contribution to election credibility must also be assessed in relation to its reliability, transparency, proper use by electoral officials, and the confidence it inspires among voters and other electoral stakeholders.

The 2023 general elections were particularly significant in evaluating the practical role of BVAS in Nigeria’s electoral process. The elections took place amid considerable public expectations concerning electoral reforms, technological innovation, and the credibility of election administration. INEC deployed BVAS for voter accreditation during the elections, with the intention of improving the verification of registered voters and reducing opportunities for multiple voting and impersonation. The Commission also used the INEC Result Viewing Portal (IReV) to provide public access to polling-unit result images, although BVAS and IReV performed distinct functions in the electoral process. BVAS was primarily used for voter accreditation, while IReV was associated with the electronic viewing of polling-unit results. INEC’s official report on the 2023 general elections provides an institutional account of the Commission’s preparation, deployment of technology, and administration of the elections (INEC, 2023a). The European Union Election Observation Mission (EU EOM, 2023) also documented the deployment of BVAS and other technological measures, while identifying operational and transparency concerns during the election process. These observations demonstrate that the 2023 elections provide an important context for examining whether the introduction of BVAS strengthened voter verification and public confidence, while also recognising that election credibility is influenced by factors beyond accreditation technology alone.

Lagos State provides a relevant setting for examining the impact of BVAS because it is one of Nigeria’s major political and population centres, with a large electorate and substantial electoral competition. The state’s political significance, urban population, diverse communities, and high levels of electoral mobilisation make the administration of elections particularly important. During the 2023 general elections, voters in Lagos participated in presidential, National Assembly, and state-level electoral contests, while electoral officials had to administer accreditation and voting across numerous polling units. In such a setting, reliable voter identification is important for reducing impersonation, strengthening the integrity of the voter accreditation process, and supporting confidence in the administration of elections. INEC’s official election report provides the institutional context for understanding the deployment of electoral technologies across Nigeria, including the organisation of election operations and accreditation procedures (INEC, 2023a). The EU EOM (2023) further provides an independent assessment of the 2023 elections, including observations on the implementation of technological processes and the conduct of polling. Studying Lagos State therefore offers an opportunity to examine the practical experiences of BVAS deployment within a politically significant state, while considering the perceptions of electoral stakeholders and the broader conditions that shaped the credibility of the 2023 elections.

The credibility of an election cannot be determined solely by whether a technological device was deployed; it also depends on whether the system functioned properly, whether officials followed established procedures, and whether the wider electoral process was transparent and accountable. BVAS may strengthen credibility by improving biometric verification, limiting impersonation, and creating a more consistent accreditation process. However, technical failures, difficulties in capturing fingerprints, inadequate preparation, insufficient training, and delays in resolving equipment problems may reduce its effectiveness. In addition, voters may judge an election on several dimensions, including the conduct of electoral officials, the secrecy of the ballot, the absence of intimidation, the accuracy of counting and collation, and the timely handling of complaints. James and Alihodžić (2020) stress that electoral technology must be supported by effective implementation and institutional safeguards to achieve its intended objectives. The EU EOM (2023) similarly documented concerns about aspects of the 2023 election process, indicating that technological reforms should be evaluated alongside operational and transparency issues. It is therefore necessary to distinguish the specific contribution of BVAS to voter accreditation from other factors that may affect the credibility of election outcomes. This distinction is important for determining whether BVAS improved the accreditation process and whether voters and electoral stakeholders considered its use beneficial to the integrity of the 2023 elections in Lagos State.

Although BVAS was introduced as an important electoral reform, its actual impact on election credibility requires careful assessment. The technology may improve voter identification and reduce opportunities for impersonation, but its presence alone cannot guarantee that all stages of an election are free from irregularities. Public confidence may also depend on whether voters understand the system, whether electoral officials use it consistently, and whether the procedures surrounding results transmission and collation are transparent. The EU EOM (2023) concluded that the 2023 elections involved important shortcomings in aspects of electoral administration and transparency, despite the deployment of technological measures. INEC (2023a), on the other hand, provides the Commission’s official account of its electoral operations and the application of technology during the elections. These sources offer different but complementary perspectives for examining electoral reform: one focuses on the election management body’s account, while the other provides an independent observation of the electoral process. Against this background, the present study examines the impact of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System on the credibility of elections in Nigeria, using the 2023 general elections in Lagos State as a case study. It focuses on BVAS effectiveness in voter verification, its contribution to reducing accreditation irregularities, the operational challenges associated with its use, and its relationship with perceived electoral credibility.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Electoral credibility remains a major concern in Nigeria because the legitimacy of democratic institutions depends partly on whether citizens believe that elections have been conducted fairly, transparently, and in accordance with established electoral laws. Over the years, concerns about voter impersonation, multiple voting, manipulation of results, electoral violence, and weaknesses in electoral administration have encouraged reforms aimed at improving the integrity of elections. The introduction of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System was intended to strengthen voter identification through biometric verification and reduce opportunities for accreditation-related malpractice. However, the adoption of technology does not automatically guarantee credible elections. Birch (2011) explains that electoral malpractice can undermine confidence in democratic institutions, while Norris (2014) emphasises that electoral integrity depends on the quality of procedures throughout the electoral cycle. The problem, therefore, is whether BVAS has effectively addressed the specific challenges associated with voter accreditation and contributed to greater confidence in election administration in Nigeria.

The 2023 general elections provided an important opportunity to assess the practical effectiveness of BVAS in Nigeria’s electoral process. Although the technology was intended to strengthen voter verification and improve electoral transparency, its implementation occurred alongside operational and administrative difficulties. The European Union Election Observation Mission (EU EOM, 2023) reported that BVAS and the INEC Result Viewing Portal were regarded as important technological innovations, but also documented problems with the implementation of election technology and delays in uploading presidential election results to the portal. The National Democratic Institute and International Republican Institute (NDI & IRI, 2023) similarly identified logistical, technological, and communication failures that affected aspects of the 2023 electoral process. These findings raise questions about the extent to which the expected benefits of electoral technology were realised. In particular, it is necessary to determine whether BVAS improved the accuracy and reliability of voter accreditation despite the operational challenges experienced during the elections.

In Lagos State, the importance of this problem is heightened by the state’s political significance, large electorate, and competitive electoral environment. The 2023 general elections involved substantial political mobilisation and public interest, making the credibility of voter accreditation and other electoral procedures particularly important. BVAS could contribute to electoral credibility by confirming voters’ identities, limiting opportunities for impersonation, and helping election officials establish the number of accredited voters. Nevertheless, the credibility of an election also depends on other factors, including the conduct of electoral officials, compliance with voting procedures, protection of voters from intimidation, transparent counting and collation, and the handling of electoral complaints. The EU EOM (2023) identified concerns about electoral transparency and the implementation of technology during the 2023 elections, while INEC (2024), in its official report on the general elections, documented the Commission’s technological preparations and operational experiences. The challenge is to establish the specific contribution of BVAS to electoral credibility in Lagos State without attributing every irregularity or administrative difficulty to the accreditation system itself.

Furthermore, there is a need to distinguish between the technical effectiveness of BVAS and the broader perception of electoral credibility among voters and other stakeholders. A system may successfully verify voters’ identities but still operate within an electoral environment affected by concerns about result transparency, political interference, violence, or administrative shortcomings. Conversely, operational difficulties do not necessarily mean that the system provided no benefit in preventing accreditation-related irregularities. James and Alihodžić (2020) emphasise that electoral technology must be evaluated within its institutional and political context, while the EU EOM (2023) demonstrates that technological innovation and shortcomings in electoral transparency can coexist. The central problem addressed by this study is therefore to determine how BVAS influenced voter accreditation, the prevention of accreditation-related irregularities, and perceptions of electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State. The study will also examine the operational challenges associated with its deployment and consider how these challenges affected its perceived contribution to credible elections.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of this study is to examine the impact of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System on the credibility of elections in Nigeria, using the 2023 general elections in Lagos State as a case study.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Examine the effectiveness of BVAS in verifying voters’ identities during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

2. Assess the contribution of BVAS to reducing voter impersonation and other accreditation-related electoral irregularities in Lagos State.

3. Examine the operational and technical challenges associated with the deployment of BVAS during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

4. Determine the relationship between the use of BVAS and perceived electoral credibility among voters and other relevant electoral stakeholders in Lagos State.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. How effective was BVAS in verifying voters’ identities during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State?

2. To what extent did BVAS contribute to reducing voter impersonation and other accreditation-related electoral irregularities in Lagos State?

3. What operational and technical challenges were associated with the deployment of BVAS during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State?

4. What relationship existed between the use of BVAS and perceived electoral credibility among voters and other relevant electoral stakeholders in Lagos State?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis will be tested:

H₀: There is no statistically significant relationship between the use of BVAS and perceived electoral credibility during the 2023 general elections in Lagos State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study is expected to be beneficial to the Independent National Electoral Commission, policymakers, political parties, voters, civil society organisations, election observers, researchers, and students of political science and public administration.

Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC): The findings may provide information on the effectiveness of BVAS in voter verification and the operational challenges encountered during its deployment. This information could assist INEC in improving equipment preparation, staff training, technical support, voter education, and the administration of future elections.

Government and policymakers: The study may provide evidence to support decisions concerning electoral reforms, the use of technology in elections, and measures for strengthening public confidence in democratic institutions. It may also help policymakers distinguish between problems that require technological improvements and those that require broader institutional or legal reforms.

Political parties and candidates: The findings may improve understanding of the role and limitations of BVAS in electoral administration. This could encourage evidence-based engagement with electoral reforms and more constructive participation in efforts to improve election credibility.

Voters: The study may improve public understanding of the purpose of BVAS, its role in voter accreditation, and the distinction between accreditation technology and other stages of the electoral process. It may also encourage informed participation in elections and evidence-based evaluation of electoral reforms.

Civil society organisations and election observers: The findings may support voter education, independent election observation, and advocacy for transparent and accountable electoral administration.

Researchers and students: The study may contribute to academic literature on electoral technology and democratic governance in Nigeria. It may also provide a basis for further research on BVAS, electronic election administration, voter confidence, and electoral integrity in other states and election cycles.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the impact of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System on electoral credibility, using the 2023 general elections in Lagos State as its case study.

The geographical scope is Lagos State, Nigeria. The specific local government areas or communities to be covered should be identified in the research methodology.

The content scope covers four main areas: the effectiveness of BVAS in verifying voters’ identities; its contribution to reducing voter impersonation and other accreditation-related irregularities; operational and technical challenges associated with its deployment; and its relationship with perceived electoral credibility.

The temporal scope is the 2023 general elections, covering the relevant presidential, National Assembly, governorship, and State House of Assembly elections in Lagos State where applicable to the study’s data and respondents.

The study distinguishes BVAS’s voter accreditation function from the electronic publication of polling-unit results through the INEC Result Viewing Portal (IReV). Although these technologies were connected in the wider electoral process, they served distinct functions. This distinction is necessary to avoid attributing every problem involving result transmission or publication directly to biometric voter accreditation.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study may face limitations relating to access to election records, the availability of detailed polling-unit information, and the ability to obtain reliable accounts from voters and electoral stakeholders. Some respondents may have incomplete knowledge of BVAS or may base their views on media reports, political affiliations, or personal experiences.

Another limitation is the difficulty of separating the impact of BVAS from other factors affecting electoral credibility, including electoral violence, political interference, logistical problems, result collation, and public communication by election administrators. The findings must therefore distinguish between the system’s technical performance and the wider credibility of the electoral process.

The study may also be limited by its geographical focus on Lagos State and its examination of one election cycle. Its findings may not fully represent the experience of other states or subsequent elections. These limitations will be addressed through clear definitions, careful selection of data sources or respondents, and cautious interpretation of the findings.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS): A biometric technology deployed by INEC to verify registered voters using fingerprint and facial recognition during voter accreditation. BVAS was also used in the 2023 elections to scan and upload polling-unit result forms to IReV.

Electoral Credibility: The extent to which an election is perceived and assessed as being conducted fairly, transparently, accurately, and in accordance with applicable electoral laws and procedures.

Voter Accreditation: The process of confirming that a person presenting to vote is an eligible registered voter assigned to the relevant polling unit and satisfies the applicable accreditation requirements.

Voter Impersonation: An electoral offence or irregularity involving a person attempting to vote by falsely presenting themselves as another registered voter.

Electoral Irregularities: Actions or administrative failures that violate or undermine established electoral laws, procedures, or standards.

Electoral Technology: Digital or electronic tools used to support electoral activities, including voter registration, biometric accreditation, electronic result management, and the publication of election information.

Operational Challenges: Practical difficulties affecting the deployment or use of BVAS, including equipment malfunction, inadequate training, delays, power-related difficulties, and insufficient technical support.

Perceived Electoral Credibility: The assessment by voters and other relevant stakeholders of the fairness, transparency, reliability, and trustworthiness of the electoral process.

Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC): The constitutionally established electoral management body responsible for organising, conducting, and supervising elections within its jurisdiction in Nigeria.

2023 General Elections: The presidential, National Assembly, governorship, and State House of Assembly elections conducted in Nigeria in 2023, including the relevant elections held in Lagos State.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

The study is organised into five chapters.

Chapter One presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives, research questions, research hypothesis, significance, scope, limitations, operational definitions, and organisation of the study.

Chapter Two reviews relevant literature on electoral credibility, electoral technology, BVAS, voter accreditation, and the conduct of the 2023 general elections. It also examines relevant theoretical perspectives, empirical studies, and gaps in the existing literature.

Chapter Three explains the research methodology, including the research design, population of the study, sample size and sampling technique where applicable, sources of data, data collection instruments, validity and reliability procedures where relevant, and methods of data analysis.

Chapter Four presents and analyses the data, discusses the findings in relation to the research objectives and questions, and reports the result of the hypothesis test.

Chapter Five summarises the findings, draws conclusions, provides recommendations, discusses the implications of the study, and suggests areas for further research.

Project – The Impact of the Bimodal Voter Accreditation System (BVAS) on the Credibility of Elections in Nigeria: A Case Study of the 2023 General Elections in Lagos State.